n 


LIBRARY    OF   THE 


University  of  California. 


BIOLOGV 


c  j  Rc  UL  A  TING     B  K  A  AT  //  . 


Eeturn  in  i#5  weW ;  or  a  week  before  the  end  of  the  term. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


A    MANUAL 


OF 


ZOOLOGY 


FOR 


SCHOOLS,  COLLEGES,  AND  THE  GENERAL  READER. 


BY 


SANBORN    TENNEY,  A.M., 

AUTHOR  OF  "GEOLOGY,  ETC.,"  AND  PROFESSOR  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  IK 
VASSAR  FEMALE  COLLEGE. 


Illustrated  with  over  Five  Hundred  Engravings. 


'  O  Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works  !  in  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all :  the  earth 
is  full  of  thy  riches."  —  Ps.  civ.  24. 


NEW    YORK: 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER  &  CO.,  124  GRAND  ST. 
1866. 


Tf 

L^ 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1865,  by 

SANBORN     TENNEY, 
in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


UNIVERSITY  PRESS  :  WELCH,  BIGELOW,  &  Co., 
CAMBRIDGE. 


TO 

THOSE  WHO   BELIEVE  THAT  THE  LEADING  FACTS  AND  PRINCIPLES 

OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  SHOULD  BE  TAUGHT   IN  ALL 

THE  SCHOOLS  OF  THIS  COUNTRY, 

THIS   VOLUME 

*        V    ?.  ' 

IS     RESPECTFULLY     DEDICATED 
BY 

THE    AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  work  is  intended  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom,  especially  as  it  is  represented  in 
North  America,  and  thereby  to  make  the  learner  ac- 
quainted with  the  leading  facts  and  principles  of  the 
department  of  Natural  History  properly  called  Zoology. 
In  its  preparation,  I  have  freely  used  all  the  materials 
at  my  command,  but  have  taken  special  pains  to  con- 
sult and  select  from  original  papers.  The  general  plan 
of  the  work  is  essentially  that  of  Cuvier,  with  such  modi- 
fications as  have  received  the  sanction  of  eminent  natu- 
ralists. For  the  special  way  in  which  the  plan  is  carried 
out,  the  writer  alone  is  responsible.  In  treating  of  the 
Mammals,  I  have  followed  mainly  the  writings  of  Cuvier 
and  Baird ;  of  the  Birds,  those  of  Baird,  Audubon,  and 
Wilson ;  of  the  Reptiles  and  Batrachians,  those  of  Hoi- 
brook,  Agassiz,  Baird  &  Girard ;  of  Fishes,  those  of 
Cuvier,  Storer,  and  DeKay ;  of  Insects,  those  of  Harris 
and  the  authors  named  in  connection  with  each  order ; 
of  Crustaceans,  those  of  Dana ;  of  Worms,  those  of  Cu- 
vier, Agassiz,  and  Weinland  ;  of  Mollusks,  those  of  Wood- 
ward, Gould,  and  Lea ;  of  Echinoderms,  those  of  Desor, 
Agassiz,  and  Forbes ;  of  Acalephs,  those  of  Agassiz ;  of 


VI  PREFACE. 

Polyps,  those  of  Dana,  Verrill,  and  Milne-Edwards.  Great 
prominence  is  purposely  given  to  the  Mammals  and 
Birds  of  this  country,  that  all  may  have  at  least  an 
accessible  catalogue  of  these  two  groups,  in  which  every 
one  is  interested ;  the  other  groups,  however,  are  not 
neglected. 

The  wood-cut  illustrations  have  been  designed  mainly 
from  original  papers,  and  from  nature,  and,  with  few 
exceptions,  have  not  before  appeared  in  hand-books  of 
natural  history.  The  cuts  of  the  Mammals  are  mainly 
from  Schinz,  Audubon  &  Bachman,  and  Richardson ;  of 
the  Birds,  mainly  from  Audubon  and  Wilson ;  of  the 
Reptiles  and  Batrachians,  from  Holbrook ;  of  the  Fishes, 
from  Storer,  Holbrook,  DeKay,  and  from  nature ;  of  the 
Insects,  mainly  from  Harris,  Say,  Sanborn,  and  from 
nature ;  of  the  Crustaceans,  mainly  from  nature  and  Re- 
ports ;  of  the  Mollusks,  from  Binney,  Woodward,  Gould, 
Lea,  Conrad,  and  from  nature;  of  the  Echinoderms, 
from  nature,  Agassiz,  and  M tiller ;  of  the  Acalephs,  from 
Agassiz ;  of  the  Polyps,  from  Dana,  Milne-Edwards,  and 
Verrill ;  of  the  Protozoa,  mainly  from  Ehrenberg  and 
Huxley. 

The  drawings  were  made  with  great  skill  and  faith- 
fulness by  Mr.  Edward  S.  Morse,  well,  known  as  a  natural- 
ist, Mr.  N.  Brown,  Mr.  E.  Burrill,  and  Mrs.  J.  W.  Dickin- 
son. The  engraving  was  done  by  Messrs.  Henry  Marsh, 
N.  Brown,  and  J.  F.  Richardson.  It  is  sufficient  praise 
for  Mr.  Morse  to  say,  that  the  Grizzly  Bear,  Prong- 
horn,  nearly  all  of  the  Mollusks,  the  Echinoderms,  and 
many  others,  were  drawn  by  him ;  for  Messrs.  Burrill 


PREFACE.  Vii 

and  Marsh,  that  the  Birds  were  drawn  by  the  former 
and  engraved  by  the  latter ;  for  Mr.  Brown,  that  the 
Wapiti,  Beaver,  Otter,  Weasel,  Wolverine,  Lobster,  Aca- 
lephs,  and  many  Insects,  were  both  drawn  and  engraved 
by  him,  and  that  he  also  engraved  most  of  the  Fishes ; 
for  Mrs.  Dickinson,  that  the  Reptiles  and  Fishes  were 
mainly  drawn  by  her ;  and  for  Mr.  Richardson,  that 
he  engraved  many  of  the  Mammals  and  Insects,  and 
all  of  the  Mollusks  and  Polyps. 

I  desire  to  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  my  personal 
friends  and  others  who  have  encouraged  and  aided  me 
in  this  undertaking.  To  Professor  Jeffries  Wyman  I 
am  under  obligations  for  information  on  several  im- 
portant points,  and  for  the  privilege  of  figuring  a  beau- 
tiful specimen  of  Astrophyton  ;  to  Professor  A.  E.  Ver- 
rill,  of  Yale  College,  for  aid  in  selecting  the  cuts  of 
the  Mammals,  for  important  suggestions,  and  for  read- 
ing and  criticising  the  proofs  relating  to  Polyps;  to 
F.  W.  Putnam,  Esq.,  Superintendent  of  the  Essex  In- 
stitute, for  reading  the  proofs  relating  to  the  Reptiles 
and  Fishes,  and  adding  most  useful  notes  on  nomen- 
clature and  other  not  less  important  points ;  to  A.  S. 
Packard,  Jr.,  M.  D.,  for  aid  in  the  classification  of  In- 
sects, and  for  other  favors  ;  to  Samuel  H.  Scudder,  A.  M., 
Custodian  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  for  aid  in 
selecting  the  cuts  of  the  Insects,  and  for  reading  and 
correcting  the  proofs  treating  of  that  group ;  to  Edward 
S.  Morse,  Esq.,  for  reading  the  proofs  relating  to  Mollusks, 
and  for  other  favors  ;  and  to  Professor  H.  James  Clark, 
for  reading  the  proofs  relating  to  Acalephs.  I  would 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

also  thank  my  beloved  wife,  and  Hon.  Joseph  White, 
Professor  A.  Crosby,  Mr.  J.  Gove,  L.  R.  S.  Gove,  A.  B., 
T.  D.  Adams,  A.  M.,  and  Mr.  F.  G.  Sanborn,  for  special 
favors  in  connection  with  the  work.  I  am  under  obli- 
gations-to  Captain  Alpheus  Hyatt,  and  the  Library  of 
Harvard  College,  the  Library  of  the  Boston  Society  of 
Natural  History,  the  State  Library,  the  City  Library  of 
Boston,  and  to  Messrs.  Piper  &  Co.  of  Boston,  for  the 
use  of  rare  books.  Nor  would  I  omit  to  express  my 
thanks  to  the  gentlemen  of  the  University  Press,  whose 
skill  in  proof-reading,  electrotyping,  and  printing  has 
done  so  much  to  make  the  book  accurate  and  attrac 
tive.  And  I  would  here  thank  my  Publishers  for  their 
generosity  in  willingly  making  the  large  outlay  neces- 
sary to  issue  the  work  in  its  present  form. 

I  take  this  opportunity  to  say  that  I  shall  soon  ask 
my  Publishers  to  issue  another  volume  on  Zoology.  It 
will  contain  the  same  illustrations  as  the  present  one, 
and  will  be  especially  adapted  to  the  wants  of  Gram- 
mar Schools,  and  to  the  younger  classes  of  readers. 

Hoping  that  the  present  work  may  meet,  in  some 
degree,  a  want  which  has  long  been  felt,  and  aid  the 
youth  and  others  of  our  whole  country  in  the  delightful 
study  of  Natural  History,  and  thereby  advance  the  cause 
of  Learning,  I  submit  it  to  the  kind  consideration  of 
the  friends  of  Popular  Education. 

S.  T. 

CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  August  i,  1865. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

Page 

STATEMENT  OF  THE  SUBJECT i 

. 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE  BRANCH  OF  VERTEBRATA,  OR  VERTEBRATES      .       .  6 

SECT.  I.    THE  CLASS  OF  MAMMALIA,  OR  MAMMALS       .  .    8 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Bimana,  or  Man       ...  9 

II.     The  Order  of  Quadrumana,  or  Monkeys   .  .15 

III.  The  Order  of  Cheiroptera,  or  Bats       .         .  23 

IV.  The  Order  of  Insectivora,  or  Insect-eaters  .  26 
V.     The  Order  of  Carnivora,  or  Flesh-eaters       .  33 

VI.     The  Order  of  Marsupialia,  or  Marsupials  .  54 

VIL     The  Order  of  Rodentia,  or  Gnawers    .         .  57 

VIII.     The  Order  of  Edentata,  or  Edentates         .  .  82 

IX.     The  Order  of  Pachydermata,  or  Pachyderms  86 

X.     The  Order  of  Ruminantia,  or  Ruminants    .  93 

XL     The  Order  of  Cetacea,  or  Cetaceans      .         .  109 

SECT.  II.     THE  CLASS  OF  BIRDS        ,    .,«•;•    3  *  is-'  '1  "5 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Raptores,  or  Birds  of  Prey       .  120 

II.     The  Order  of  Scansores,  or  Climbers          .  143 

III.  The  Order  of  Insessores,  or  Perchers     .         -154 

IV.  The  Order  of  Rasores,  or  Scratchers  .         .  230 
V.     The  Order  of  Cursores,  or  Runners        .         .  242 

VI.     The  Order  of  Grallatores,  or  Waders          .  243 

VII.     The  Order  of  Natatores,  or  Swimmers  .         .  264 

SECT.  III.    THE  CLASS  OF  REPTILES       ....  285 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Testudinata,  or  Turtles    .         .  286 

II.     The  Order  of  Sauria,  Saurians,  or  Lizards  .  293 

III.     The  The  Order  of  Ophidia,  or  Serpents          .  300 

SECT.  LV.     THE  CLASS  OF  BATRACHIA,  OR  BATRACHIANS  308 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Anoura,  or  Tailless  Batrachians  309 


CONTENTS. 

Page 

Sub-Sect  II.     The  Order  of  Urodela,  or  Tailed  Batrachians      313 

III.     The  Order  of  Apoda,  or  Csecilians         .        .     317 

SECT.  V.     THE  CLASS  OF  FISHES      .        .        .        .        .        318 

Sub-Sect  I      The  Order  of  Acanthopterygians   .        .         .326 

II.     The  Order  of  Abdominal  Malacopterygians         341 

III.  The  Order  of  Sub-brachian  Malacopterygians     348 

IV.  The  Order  of  Apodal  Malacopterygians          .     351 
V.     The  Order  of  Lophobranchiates          .         .         352 

VI.  The  Order  of  Plectognathes  .         .         .  -353 

VII.  The  Order  of  Sturiones      .         .         .  .         355 

VIII.  The  Order  of  Plagiostomi,  or  Selachians  .     356 

IX.  The  Order  of  Cyclostomes,  or  Suckers  .         359 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  BRANCH  OF  ARTICULATA,  OR  ARTICULATES       .  .    361 

SECT.  I.     THE  CLASS  OF  INSECTS 361 

Sub-Sect.  I.     Hymenoptera,  or  Bees,  etc 369 

II.     Lepidoptera,  or  Butterflies  and  Moths        .  381 

III.  Diptera,  or  Flies,  etc 412 

IV.  Coleoptera,  or  Beetles       ....  420 
V.     Hemiptera,  or  Bugs,  -etc 435 

VI.     Orthoptera,  or  Grasshoppers,  etc.       .         .  443 

VII.     Neuroptera,  or  Dragon-Flies,  etc.           .  .     449 

VIII.     The  Order  of  Arachnida,  or  Spiders  .         .  455 

IX.     The  Order  of  Myriapoda,  or  Centipedes  .     458 

SECT.  II.    THE  CLASS  OF  CRUSTACEA,  OR  CRUSTACEANS  460 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Decapods         .         .         .  .461 

II.     The  Order  of  Tetradecapods      ...  464 

III.     The  Order  of  Entomostracans        .         .  .     465 

SECT.  III.     THE  CLASS  OF  WORMS 466 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Annelides         .         .        .  .467 

II.     The  Order  of  Nematoids    ....  468 

III.     The  Order  of  Trematods       .         .         .  .468 

CHAPTER    IV. 

THE  BRANCH  OF  MOLLUSCA,  OR  MOLLUSKS        .       .       -47° 

SECT.  I.     THE  CLASS  OF  CEPHALOPODA,  OR  CEPHALOPODS     471 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Dibranchiata   ....     472 

II.     The  Order  of  Tetrabranchiata    .         .         .         475 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Page 

SECT.  II.    THE  CLASS  OF  GASTEROPODA,  OR  GASTEROPODS  476 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Gasteropoda  proper .  l     .    /*.  477 

II.     The  Order  of  Heteropoda  ....  488 

IIL     The  Order  of  Pteropoda     -' .v      ;    '   V"  !.  489 

SECT.  IIL    THE  CLASS  OF  ACEPHALA,  OR  ACEPHALS      .  489 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Lamellibranchiata     .        .         .489 

IL     The  Order  of  Tunicata,  or  Ascidians .         .  495 

III.  The  Order  of  Brachiopoda,  or  Brachiopods    .  496 

IV.  The  Order  of  Bryozoa,  or  Bryozoans  .         .  497 

CHAPTER    V. 

THE  BRANCH  OF  RADIATA,  OR  RADIATES    .       .       .       .498 

SECT.  I.    THE  CLASS  OF  ECHINODERMATA       .        .        .  498 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Holothurioids,  or  Holothurians  499 

II.     The  Order  of  Echinoids,  or  Sea-Urchins        .  500 

III.  The  Order  of  Asterioids,  or  Star-Fishes      .  503 

IV.  The  Order  of  Ophiurioids,  or  Ophiurans        .  504 
V.     The  Order  of  Crinoids       .         .        .;        .  505 

SECT.  II.    THE  CLASS  OF  ACALEPHS,  OR  JELLY-FISHES      .  506 

Sub  -Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Ctenophorae,  or  Beroid  Medusae  508 

II.     The  Order  of  Discophorae,  or  Medusas  proper  509 

III.     The  Order  of  Hydroidae,  or  Hydroids   .         .  512 

SECT.  III.    THE  CLASS  OF  POLYPI,  OR  POLYPS  .    .        .  517 

Sub-Sect  I.     The  Order  of  Alcyonaria       .   !:  ~V  -    .         .  519 

IL     The  Order  of  Actinaria      .     /  •.        .        .  522 

III.     The  Order  of  Madreporaria  .         .     '"  .        .  524 

CHAPTER    VI. 

THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ANIMALS       .       .  529 

CHAPTER    VII. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS 533 


INDEX 536 


ENGRAVINGS,    TITLES,    ETC. 

WITH  comparatively  few  exceptions,  the  animals  figured  in  this  work  are 
American. 

The  Ruminants  are  drawn  approximately  one  thirty-second  of  their  nat- 
ural dimensions  ;  the  Rodents,  from  about  one  twelfth,  as  in  the  Beaver, 
Porcupine,  Pouched  Gopher,  &c.,  to  one  fourth,  as  in  the  Squirrels ;  the 
Cheiroptera  and  Insectivora,  generally  from  about  one  fifth  to  one  fourth; 
the  Cetaceans,  from  one  hundredth  to  one  fiftieth ;  and  the  other  Mammals, 
with  few  exceptions,  about  one  sixteenth. 

The  Birds  of  Prey,  Waders,  and  Swimming  Birds  are  drawn  about  one 
eighth  of  their  natural  dimensions  ;  all  the  other  Birds  about  one  fourth. 

The  Reptiles,  varying  so  much  in  size,  are  represented  on  different  scales  ; 
but  as  the  dimensions  of  each  are  given  in  the  text  near  the  cut,  no  misap- 
prehension of  size  need  occur.  The  same  is  true  of  Fishes  ;  but  in  both 
these  classes,  however,  the  smallest  species  are  represented  as  small  as  con- 
venient and  the  larger  species  as  large  as  convenient,  and  the  intermediate 
ones  graded  as  well  as  possible  between  the  two. 

The  Invertebi-ates  —  Articulates,  Mollusks,  and  Radiates  —  are  drawn 
natural  size ;  except  where  the  size  is  indicated  by  a  line  beside  the  cut, 
or  the  scale  of  the  reduction  is  marked  by  the  words  "one  half,"  "one 
third,"  &c.,  under  the  cut ;  or  where,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Lobster  and  a 
few  others,  the  size  is  so  evident  from  the  context  that  no  mistake  can  arise 
from  the  omission  of  the  words  or  figures  indicating  the  reduction.  The 
Protozoa,  however,  excepting  the  Sponges,  are  highly  magnified. 

For  the  running  title  on  each  left-hand  page  the  English  names  of  the 
Branch  and  Class  under  consideration  are  given  ;  on  each  right-hand  page, 
generally  the  scientific  names  of  the  Order  and  Family.  These,  with  the 
Index  containing  the  names  of  the  principal  groups,  and  the  more  impor- 
tant genera  and  species,  will  enable  the  reader  to  find  every  subject  with 
facility. 

The  authority  for  the  name  generally  follows  each  Species  ;  in  some  cases 
the  authority  for  the  generic  name  is  also  given  ;  and  in  Insects  proper, 
that  for  each  Family.  The  abbreviations  of  the  authorities  are  generally 
the  same  as  in  works  which  the  student  may  have  occasion  to  consult. 


GOOD  BOOKS  FOR  REFERENCE  :  Cuvier's  Animal  Kingdom  ;  Baird's  Mammals  of 
North  America,  8th  vol.  Pacific  R.  R.  Report;  Audubon  and  Bachman's  Viviparous 
Quadrupeds  of  North  America  ;  Jardine's  Naturalist's  Library  ;  Baird's  Birds  of  North 
America,  gth  vol.  Pacific  R.  R.  Report  ;  Audubon's  Birds  of  America,  7  vols.,  8vo.  ; 


Cassin's  Illustrations  of  the  Birds  of  California,  &c.  ;  Wilson's  American  Ornithology  ; 
Herpetology  ;  all  of  the  Smithsonian  Natural  History  Publi- 
cations ;  Natural  History  Reports  of  the  different  States;    Storer's  Fishes  of  Massachu- 


Holbrook's North  American  Herpetology  ;  all  of  the  Smithsonian  Natural  History 
cations  ;  Natural  History  Reports  of  the  different  States;  Storer's  Fishes  of  Mas 
setts  ;  Harris's  Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation  ;  Boisduval  and  Le  Conte's  North  American 


of  the  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.  ;  Bulletin  of  Mus.  Comp.  Zoology ;  Proceed,  of  the  Essex 
Institute  ;  Trans.  Acfad.  of  St.  Louis ;  Dana's  Crustacea ;  Woodward's  Manual  of  the 
Mollusca ;  Lea's  Conchology  ;  Binney's  Terrestrial  Mollusks  ;  Gould's  Invertebrata  of 
Massachusetts;  Morse's  Terrestrial  Pulmpnifera  of  Maine  ;  Forbes's  British  Star- Fishes  ; 
Agassiz's  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States ;  Dana's  Zoophytes  ; 
Verrill's  Revision  of  the  Polyps  of  the  Coast  of  the  United  States  ;  Dana's  Classification 
of  Animals  based  on  the  Principle  of  Cephalization  ;  Dana's  Coral  Reefs  and  Islands  : 
Darwin's  Coral  Reefs  ;  Guyot's  works  on  Physical  Geology  ;  and  Todd's  Cyclopaedia. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ZOOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

STATEMENT  OF  THE   SUBJECT. 

NATURAL  History  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
earth  and  all  natural  objects  upon  its  surface  and  within 
its  crust. 

Zoology  is  the  department  of  Natural  History  which 
treats  of  animals.  It  embraces  the  study  of  their  forms, 
structure,  development,  habits,  names,  classification,  geo- 
graphical distribution,  and  the  relations  which  animals 
lower  than  himself  sustain  to  Man,  the  highest  represent- 
ative of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

This  science  has  been  established  and  brought  to  its 
present  high  state  of  perfection  through  the  labors  of 
such  masters  as  Aristotle,  Linnaeus,  Cuvier,  and  others 
scarcely  less  renowned. 

Zoology  is  a  science  of  the  highest  importance,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  direct  practical  relations  to  the 
material  interests  of  human  society,  and  its  inseparable 
connection  with  the  great  problems  of  Geology,  but  espe- 
cially as  an  educational  branch,  securing  to  its  true 
votaries  a  spirit  of  earnest  inquiry,  habits  of  accurate 
observation  and  careful  comparison,  vigorous  and  logical 
thought,  and  power  of  broad  generalization  ;  and  deal- 
ing, as  it  does,  with  the  highest  expressions  of  matter 


2  STATEMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT. 

and  of  life,  its  study  is  eminently  adapted  to  enlarge  our 
ideas  of  creation  and  its  Great  Author.  It  makes  known 
to  us  the  Plan  of  Creation,  as  exhibited  in  the  highest 
department  of  nature  ;  and  thus  we  are  led  to  know 
more  of  Him  who  suffers  not  even  a  sparrow  to  fall  with- 
out his  notice. 

The  Animal  Kingdom  comprises  all  organized  bodies 
endowed  with  sensation  and  voluntary  motion,  —  that  is, 
all  organized  bodies  except  plants.  In  addition  to  sen- 
sation and  voluntary  motion,  which  depend  upon  special 
systems  of  organs  peculiar  to  animals,  —  the  nervous  sys- 
tem and  the  muscular  system  under  its  influence,  —  there 
are  also  other  characteristics  which  belong  exclusively 
to  members  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  and  which  show 
still  further  the  differences  between  them  and  plants. 
All,  or  nearly  all,  animals  possess  a  more  or  less  well- 
defined  digestive  cavity,  and  most  of  them  other  well- 
defined  cavities,  which  have  special  functions,  or  which 
contain  organs  which  have  special  functions.  In  plants, 
the  organs  for  special  purposes  are  not  concentrated 
and  placed  in  well-defined  cavities,  but  are  more  or  less 
distributed  over  the  body.  Animals  feed  directly  upon 
plants,  or  upon  other  animals  that  feed  upon  plants. 
Vegetation,  on  the  contrary,  is  nourished  by  the  mineral 
kingdom.  It  is  the  chief  province  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom to  convert  mineral  substances  —  earth  and  gases  — 
into  food  upon  which  animals  can  subsist.  In  animals, 
the  food  is  received  at  once  into  the  digestive  cavity, 
whence,  after  proper  elaboration,  it  traverses  and  nour- 
ishes the  whole  body.  In  plants,  most  of  the  fluids  trav- 
erse the  whole  extent  of  the  body  and  branches  before 
reaching  the  foliage,  where  the  process  of  elaboration  is 
carried  on.  In  respiration,  animals  consume  oxygen,  and 
give  off  carbonic  acid,  a  gas  poisonous,  and,  when  abun- 
dant, destructive  to  animal  life  ;  while  plants  consume 


STATEMENT    OF    THE    SUBJECT.  3 

carbonic  acid,  and  give  off  oxygen,  so  essential  to  ani- 
mals. All  animals  are  developed  from  more  or  less 
spherical  eggs ;  plants  from  seeds,  or  something  analo- 
gous to  seeds  ;  and  the  mode  of  development,  and  the 
extent  to  which  growth  goes  on,  are  essentially  different 
in  the  two  cases. 

It  was  stated  above,  that  all  animals  are  endowed  with 
sensation.  Some,  the  lowest,  have  only  general  sensibil- 
ity ;  while  others,  and  all  the  higher  ones,  are  also  en- 
dowed with  special  kinds  of  sensation,  called  special 
senses,  of  which  there  are  five  in  number,  —  the  sense 
of  sight,  of  hearing,  of  smell,  of  taste,  and  of  touch, — 
and  dependent  upon  special  organs. 

The  natural  divisions  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  are 
Branches  or  Types,  Classes,  Orders,  Families,  Genera, 
and  Species.  That  is,  the  animal  kingdom  is  divided 
into  branches,  each  branch  into  classes,  each  class  into 
orders,  each  order  into  families,  each  family  into  genera, 
each  genus  into  species,  the  latter  group  being  composed 
of  individuals  essentially  alike.  These  divisions  are  not 
the  contrivance  of  man,  but  exist  in  nature.  According 
to  Agassiz, 

Branches  are  characterized  by  plan  of  structure,  — 

Classes,  by  the  manner  in  which  that  plan  is  executed, 
as  far  as  ways  and  means  are  concerned,  — 

Orders,  by  the  complication  of  that  structure,  — 

Families,  by  form,  — 

Genera,  by  details  of  execution  in  special  parts,  — 

Species,  by  the  relation  of  individuals  to  one  another, 
and  to  the  world  in  which  they  live,  as  well  as  by  the 
proportion  of  their  parts,  their  ornamentation,  &c. 

That  is,  certain  characters  determine  the  Branch,  cer- 
tain others  determine  the  Class,  others  the  Order,  others 
the  Family,  others  the  Genus,  and  others  still  the  Spe- 
cies. These  principles  of  classification,  however,  are  not 


4  STATEMENT   OF   THE    SUBJECT. 

as  yet  generally  recognized  and  fully  applied  ;  but  most 
writers  designate  at  least  the  subordinate  groups  by  a 
combination  of  characteristics  more  or  less  different  in 
their  nature. 

The  number  of  species  of  animals  is  not  known,  but 
may  safely  be  estimated  as  high  as  a  million,  or  even 
more,  of  which  the  small  and  microscopic  comprise  an 
immense  majority. 

Cuvier  has  shown  that  the  animal  kingdom  comprises 
four  great  Branches  or  Types,  —  Vertebrata,  Articulata, 
Mollusca,  and  Radiata.  All  the  animals  in  any  one  of 
these  branches  are  constructed  upon  the  same  plan. 

The  Branch  of  Vertebrata  comprises  all  animals  which 
have  an  internal  skeleton  with  a  backbone  for  an  axis. 
Man  and  all  the  higher  animals  belong  to  this  branch. 

The  Branch  of  Articulata  comprises  all  animals  whose 
bodies  are  made  up  of  similar  rings  or  segments,  placed 
transversely  to  the  longitudinal  axis ;  and  whose  parts 
which  correspond  to  a  skeleton  are  external.  All  In- 
sects, Crabs,  Lobsters,  Shrimps,  and  Worms  belong  to 
this  branch. 

The  Branch  of  Mollusca  comprises  soft-bodied  animals, 
such  as  Cuttle-fishes,  Squids,  Snails,  Mussels,  Oysters, 
and  Clams. 

The  Branch  of  Radiata  comprises  animals  whose  parts 
are  more  or  less  symmetrically  arranged  around  a  verti- 
cal axis.  Sea-urchins,  Star-fishes,  Crinoids,  Jelly-fishes, 
Coral  animals,  and  Sea-anemones  belong  to  this  branch. 

Baer  has  shown  that  for  each  of  these  branches  there 
is  a  special  mode  of  development  in  the  egg.  In  Ver- 
tebrates the  germ  divides  into  two  folds,  one  turning 
upward  and  the  other  downward.  In  Articulates,  the 
germ  lies  with  its  back  portion  upon  the  yolk,  and  ab- 
sorbs the  latter  into  that  part  of  the  body.  In  Mol- 
lusks,  the  germ  lies  upon  the  yolk,  and  absorbs  the  latter 


STATEMENT   OF   THE   SUBJECT.  5 

into  the  under  surface  of  the  body.  In  Radiates,  the 
germ  occupies  the  whole  periphery  of  the  sphere. 

Of  the  four  branches  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  the 
Vertebrates  are  unquestionably  the  highest  in  rank,  and 
the  Radiates  lowest ;  while  of  the  other  two  it  is  not 
easy  to  say  which,  on  the  whole,  is  the  higher,  and  which 
the  lower  branch.  And  here  a  word  of  explanation  is 
due  in  regard  to  the  rank  of  animals. 

In  one  sense,  all  animals  are  alike  perfect.  Each  is 
perfectly  adapted  to  fulfil  its  own  peculiar  office  in  the 
great  economy  of  nature.  In  this  sense,  every  animal  is 
perfect.  But  in  regard  to  organization  there  is  every 
grade,  from  those  of  the  most  extreme  simplicity,  and 
with  the  most  simple  functions,  to  those  of  .the  highest 
possible  complication,  and  with  the  most  numerous,  va- 
ried, and  complicated  functions.  Now  an  animal  is 
higher  according  to  its  higher  complication  of  structure, 
and  hence  more  numerous  and  varied  functions. 

In  the  subsequent  pages  we  examine  somewhat  care- 
fully these  four  branches  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  taking 
them  in  the  order  named  above.  One  chapter  is  de- 
voted to  each  Branch,  one  section  to  each  Class,  one 
sub-section  to  each  Order.  Paragraphs  marked  with 
small  capitals  introduce  each  Family.  The  Genera  are 
given  in  italics,  the  popular  name  of  Species  in  ordi- 
nary type,  and  the  scientific  name  immediately  follows 
in  italics. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  BRANCH  OF  VERTEBRATA,  OR  VERTEBRATES. 

THE  Vertebrata  embrace  all  animals  which  have  a 
bony  or  cartilaginous  axis,  called  the  spinal  column, 
with  an  elongated  cavity  above  it,  containing  the  great 
nervous  centre,  —  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  —  and  an- 
other below  it,  containing  the  organs  of  respiration,  di- 
gestion, circulation,  and  reproduction.  From  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord  branch  the  nerves,  in  the  form  of  threads, 
to  every  part  of  the  body.  In  all  the  Vertebrates  the 
skeleton  is  internal,  and  constitutes  the  frame  upon 
which  the  muscles  are  placed,  the  skin,  with  its  appen- 
dages, covering  the  whole.  The  axis  of  the 
skeleton  is  made  up  of  parts,  which  are  more 
or  less  movable  upon  one  another.  Each  of 
these  parts  is  called  a  vertebra,  and  hence 
the  axis  is  often  called  the  vertebral  axis,  or 
A  vertebra  vertebral  column,  as  well  as  spinal  column  and 

backbone. 

All  Vertebrates  have  red  blood,  which  is  propelled 
through  the  system  by  a  muscular  heart.  The  mouth 
is  furnished  with  two  jaws,  usually  armed  with  teeth, 
which  are  more  or  less  bony,  and  often  enamelled. 
Vertebrates  exhibit  perfect  bilateral  symmetry,  that  is, 
the  organs  are  arranged  in  pairs  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
body.  The  eyes  are  two,  ears  two,  and  the  locomotive 
appendages  never  exceed  four.  The  animals  of  this 


VERTEBRATES. 

1.  a 


Arm  of  Man. 


Arm  of  Gorilla. 


Wing  of  Bat. 


Leg  of  Turtle. 


Fin  of  Fish. 


8  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

branch  are  characterized  by  higher  intelligence  than 
those  of  any  other.  Vertebrates  comprise  five  *  classes, 
—  Mammalia,  Birds,  Reptiles,  Batrachians,  and  Fishes. 
Many  writer's  group  the '  Batrachians  and  Reptiles  to- 
gether, and  give  the  latter  name  to  the  class,  thus  mak- 
ing the  classes  only  four  in  number.  In  all  these 
the  fundamental  idea  of  a  Vertebrate  is  plainly  mani- 
fested, and  the  principal  parts  of  the  skeleton  corre- 
spond, part  to  part,  head  to  head,  spinal  column  to  spinal 
column,  locomotive  members  to  locomotive  members,  — 
the  members  in  each  case  modified  according  to  the 
function  to  be  performed,  whether  it  be  that  of  standing, 
or  grasping,  or  walking,  or  running,  or  leaping,  or  spring- 
ing, or  flying,  or  creeping,  or  swimming,  but  the  general 
plan  always  the  same.  Figures  2-12,  where  corre- 
sponding parts  are  marked  by  the  same  letter,  show 
clearly  that  the  anterior  locomotive  members  of  differ- 
ent Vertebrates  are  expressions  of  one  and  the  same  fun- 
damental idea. 


SECTION    I. 

THE    CLASS    OF    MAMMALIA,    OR   MAMMALS. 

THE  Class  of  Mammalia  comprises  all  Vertebrates 
which  bring  forth  their  young  alive,  and  nourish  them 
with  milk  from  their  own  bodies.  They  are  all  furnished 
with  a  solid  skeleton,  which  is  divided  into  well-defined 
regions,  as  the  head,  trunk,  and  extremities ;  the  upper 
jaw  is  fixed  to  the  cranium,  the  lower  formed  of  only  two 
pieces  ;  the  teeth  are  enamelled,  and  the  neck,  with  few 
exceptions,  has  only  seven  vertebrae.  The  brain  is  com- 

*  Agassiz,  in  his  "Essay  on  Classification,"  recognizes  eight  classes  in 
the  Branch  of  Vertebrates,  —  Mammals,  Birds,  Reptiles,  Amphibians, 
Selachians,  Ganoids,  Fishes  proper,  and  Myzontes. 


MAN.  9 

posed  of  two  hemispheres,  and  a  muscular  diaphragm 
separates  the  cavity  of  the  chest  from  that  of  the  ab- 
domen. They  all  breathe  air  by  mearts  of  lungs ;  the 
blood  is  warm,  and  their  circulatory  system  consists  of  a 
heart  with  four  cavities,  arteries  which  carry  the  blood 
from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  veins  which  con- 
duct the  blood  back  to  the  heart,  and  capillary  vessels 
which  connect  the  termination  of  the  arteries  with  the 
beginning  of  the  veins.  The  nose  of  mammals  forms 
part  of  the  face ;  the  eyes  are  protected  by  two  lids, 
which  are  generally  furnished  with  eyelashes ;  the  ears 
are  composed  of  three  parts ;  and  they  are  all  endowed 
with  vocal  organs.  Mammals  are  the  highest  in  rank 
of  all  the  animals  of  the  globe.  The  number  of  spe- 
cies is  about  two  thousand,  distributed  among  the  follow- 
ing orders  :  Bimana,  or  Man  ;  Quadrumana,  or  Monkeys  ; 
Cheiroptera,  or  Bats  ;  Insectivora,  or  Insect-eaters  ;  Car- 
nivora,  or  Flesh-eaters ;  Marsupialia,  or  Marsupials ;  * 
Rodentia,  or  Gnawers ;  Edentata,  or  Edentates  ;  Pachy- 
derm ata,f  or  Pachyderms ;  Ruminantia,  or  Ruminants ; 
and  Cetacea,  or  Cetaceans. 

SUB -SECTION   I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  BIMANA,  OR  MAN. 

THE  structure  of  Man  is  essentially  the  same  in  kind 
as  that  of  other  mammals,  differing  only  or  mainly  in  de- 
gree ;  yet  the  degrees  of  difference  separate  him  widely 
from  all  other  animals,  and  place  him  in  an  order  by 
himself,  and  far  above  all  other  organized  beings.  He  is 
the  only  animal  to  which  the  erect  position  is  natural ; 

*  Marsupials  are  now  considered  as  a  Sub-Class  parallel  with  other  mam- 
malian quadrupeds.  In  fact,  Cuvier  so  regarded  them,  but  treated  them  as 
an  Order. 

f  Many  modern  systematists  unite  the  Pachyderms  and  Ruminants  in  one 
Order,  called  Herbivores,  or  Plant-eaters. 


IO 


VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 


sc-cl 


Fis-  J3-  his  whole  organization 

is  adapted  to  that  atti- 
tude. His  brain  is  the 
largest  in  the  Animal 
Kingdom,  excepting  on- 
ly that  of  the  elephant 
and  of  the  whale,  and 
in  its  organization  is 
far  superior  to  that  of 
any  other  animal.  His 
face  is  a  model  of  beau- 
ty, and  endowed  with  a 
wonderful  power  of  ex- 
pression. The  hand  of 
man  is  superior  in  its 
structure  and  in  its  func- 
tions to  the  correspond- 
ing member  of  any  oth- 
er animal.  Man  alone 
truly  speaks  a  language. 
Even  physically  consid- 
ered, he  is  the  highest 
possible  expression  of  a 
vertebrate.  But  Man  is 
Skeleton  of  Man.  the  highest  represent- 

cv,  cervical  vertebrae;  sc-cl,  scapula  and  cla-  ative       of      the  Animal 

vicle ;  h.  humerus ;  Iv,  lumbar  vertebrae  ;  p,  pel-  -\r  •          i  i 

vis;    u,  ulna;    r,  radius;   c,   carpus;    «,,    meta-  Kingdom,    not  Only    On 

carpus;  ph,  phalanges;/?,   femur;    t,   tibia;/  aCCOUllt    of  hlS  Superior 

fibula ;  ts,  tarsus  ;  nit,  metatarsus  ;  ps,  phalanges.  r  ,    -   .     , 

form  and  higher  phys- 
ical organization,  but,  above  all,  on  account  of  those  high 
mental  and  spiritual  endowments  which  belong  to  him 
alone,  and  which  enable  him  to  understand  and  appre- 
ciate the  wonderful  and  sublime  harmonies  of  the  ma- 
terial and  moral  world,  and  his  own  relations  to  the 
Author  of  Nature  and  of  Revelation. 


II 


Molars. 


While  each  species 
of  the  lower  animals 
is  limited  to  a  given 
region  or  country,  and 
in  many  cases  can- 
not survive  a  remov- 
al, Man's  home  is 
the  whole  earth, — he 
alone  is  truly  cosmop- 
olite. But  while  Man 
is  found  in  all  zones 
and  climates,  he  dif- 
fers greatly  both  in 
his  physical  and  men- 
tal nature  in  different 
regions.  In  the  ex- 
amination of  vegeta- 
ble life,  and  life  as 
revealed  in  animals 
lower  than  Man,  we 
find  that  both  reach 
their  highest  expres- 
sion in  the  hot  regions. 
Not  so  with  Man.  It 
is  not  in  the  moist, 


Pre-molars.     Canine. 
Human  Teeth. 

Fig-  15- 


Incisors. 


Nervous  System  of  Man. 
a,  cerebrum,  or  principal  brain,  called  the  hemi- 


warm  air  of  the  trop-    spheres:  *'  c<*ebellum> or  smaller  brain'  c> 


cord  giving  off  its  branches  of  nerves. 


12  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

ics,  where  all  his  wants  are  supplied  by  the  spontaneous 
productions  of  the  soil,  nor  in  the  frigid  regions,  where 
he  wages  a  constant  warfare  with  nature  to  secure  food 
and  clothing,  that  Man  appears  in  his  highest  stage  of 
development ;  but  it  is  in  the  temperate  regions  that  he 
reaches  his  highest  expression  physically,  mentally,  and 
morally.  Ethnologists  recognize  three  principal  varieties, 
or  types,  of  Man,  each  having  certain  characteristics  not 
possessed  by  the  others,  —  the  Caucasian,  the  Mongo- 
lian, and  the  Ethiopian.  Besides  these,  there  are  the 
Malayan  and  the  American,  which  are  regarded  as  sub- 
ordinate types,  and  derived  from  the  Mongolian.  With 
this  explanation,  we  may  regard  the  human  family  as 
composed  of  five  types,  or  races,  —  the  Caucasian,  Mon- 
golian, Ethiopian,  Malayan,  and  American. 

The  Caucasian  race  occupies  Europe,  except  Lapland 
and  Finnland,  Southwestern  Asia,  Northern  Africa,  Ice- 
land, and  the  United  States.  The  Caucasian  type  is 
characterized  by  a  round  or  oval  head,  smooth  skull,  ver- 
tical and  symmetrical  features,  fair  complexion,  ample 
beard,  and  medium  stature.  The  facial  angle  varies  from 
75°  to  about  90°,  and  the  capacity  of  the  skull  from  75  to 
109  cubic  inches.  The  Caucasians  are  possessed  of  a 
considerable  degree  of  muscular  strength,  energy,  and 
endurance,  and  in  many  cases  these  exist  in  a  marked 
degree  of  superiority.  They  are  more  beautiful  in  per- 
son, and  exhibit  higher  intelligence  and  refinement,  than 
any  other  race.  They  are  represented  in  Southwestern 
Asia  by  the  Hindoos,  Persians,  and  Syro-Arabians ;  in 
Europe  by  the  Teutonians,  who  inhabit  Iceland,  Scan- 
dinavia, Germany,  the  eastern  and  southeastern  portions 
of  Scotland,  the  eastern  part  of  England,  and  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Ireland  ;  and  by  the  Celts,  who  inhabit 
Western  and  Southern  Europe,  including  most  of  Scot- 
land and  Ireland,  Wales,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy, 


MAN.  13 

and  adjacent  islands ;  and  by  the  Slavonians,  who  in- 
habit Turkey,  part  of  Prussia,  Poland,  and  Russia. 

The  Mongolian  race  embraces  the  inhabitants  of  Cen- 
tral, Eastern,  and  Northern  Asia,  the  Laplanders  and 
Finnlanders  of  Europe,  and  the  Esquimaux  of  Greenland 
and  North  America.  The  Mongolian  type  is  character- 
ized by  a  broad  head,  angular  face,  oblique  eyes,  tawny 
skin,  rough,  straight  hair,  scanty  beard,  rather  low  stature, 
long  body,  and  short  extremities.  The  facial  angle  is 
from  70°  to  80°,  and  the  capacity  of  the  skull  from  69 
to  73  cubic  inches.  The  Mongolians  have  less  physical 
strength  and  energy,  and  less  mental  power,  than  the 
Caucasians.  They  are  shrewd,  crafty,  insincere,  obsti- 
nate, cruel  to  vanquished  foes,  and  contented  with  a  sta- 
tionary civilization. 

The  Ethiopian  race  embraces  the  inhabitants  of  Africa 
south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  together  with  their  de- 
scendants in  the  United  States.  The  Ethiopian  type  is 
characterized  by  an  elongated,  narrow  cranium,  crisp, 
curly  hair,  projecting  jaws,  thick  lips,  and  black  or  dusky 
skin.  The  true  Negroes  of  Western  and  Central  Africa, 
and  the  Caffres  and  Hottentots  of  Southern  Africa,  are 
two  prominent  divisions  of  the  Ethiopian  race.  The 
Negroes/  in  addition  to  the  characteristics  just  men- 
tioned, have  the  skull  thick  and  heavy,  the  facial  angle 
from  65°  to  70°,  the  mouth  wide,  face  narrow  and  lower 
part  greatly  projecting,  the  chin  retracted,  eyes  promi- 
nent, iris  black,  and  the  vessels  of  the  eye  suffused  with 
a  bilious  "tinge.  Their  beard  is  scanty,  and  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  point  of  the  chin.  The  body  is  muscular, 
strong,  and  symmetrical.  The  bones  of  the  forearm  are 
somewhat  elongated,  the  shin-bones  slightly  bent  forward, 
the  calves  placed  high  up,  the  feet  broad  and  heavy,  the 
soles  flat,  and  the  heel  bone  considerably  projecting. 
They  can  endure  hard  and  protracted  labor  under  a 


14  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS.   v 

broiling  sun,  and  in  marshy  districts,  where  other  races 
would  sink  under  disease.  They  are  patient,  honest,  and 
passionately  fond  of  simple  melodies. 

The  Caffres  have  the  cranium  higher  and  more  round- 
ed, the  jaws  less  prominent,  and  the  nose  less  depressed,, 
than  the  true  Negroes,  and  the  skin  varies  from  dark 
brown  to  clear  yellowish  brown.  The  Hottentots  are 
low  in  stature,  the  head  is  flatter  and  the  body  less  ath- 
letic than  in  the  Caffre,  and  the  color  is  brownish-yellow, 
besides  various  other  marked  peculiarities. 

The  Malayan  race  extends  from  Madagascar  on  the 
west  to  Easter  Island  in  the  Pacific,  and  from  the  island 
of  Formosa  to  New  Zealand.  Within  these  limits  there 
are  two  or  three  well-marked  divisions  of  the  inhabitants, 
—  the  Malays  proper,  the  Papuans,  and  the  Australians. 

The  Malayan  type  proper  is  characterized  by  a  rather 
small  head,  with  a  capacity  of  64  to  89  cubic  inches,  the 
dome  of  the  skull  high  and  rounded,  the  forehead  low, 
face  broad  and  flat,  cheek-bones  high,  nose  short  and  ex- 
panded, but  not  flat,  mouth  wide,  upper  jaws  projecting, 
angle  of  lower  jaw  very  prominent,  the  auditory  open- 
ing placed  high  up,  and  the  orbital  ridges  prominent  and 
overhanging.  The  Malayans  are  short  and  robust,  the 
skin  varies  from  clear  brown  to  dark  olive  and  bright 
yellow,  the  hair  is  black,  straight,  shining,  generally 
rough,  and  the  beard  scanty.  The  Malay  proper  is 
treacherous,  ferocious,  and  implacable.  The  more  civil- 
ized indulge  in  narcotics  to  great  excess,  and  the  more 
savage  in  cannibalism  and  piracy. 

The  Papuans  constitute  the  sole  inhabitants  of  New 
Guinea  and  the  smaller  islands  immediately  adjacent. 
They  so  much  resemble  the  Negroes  and  Caffres  that 
they  are  popularly  known  as  the  Papuan  Negroes.  The 
native  Australians  are  characterized  by  a  spare  form, 
a  marked  lankness  of  the  limbs,  large  head,  projecting 


QUADRUMANA.  1 5 

brows,  broad  nose,  wide  mouth,  straight,  dark  hair,  and 
a  skin  varying  from  chocolate-brown  to  black.  The 
Australians  and  Papuans  may  truly  be  considered  among 
the  lowest  specimens  of  the  human  family. 

The  American  race  includes  all  the  aboriginal  inhab- 
itants of  America  except  the  Esquimaux.  The  native 
American  head  resembles  that  of  the  Mongolian,  but  is 
more  rounded  than  the  latter ;  the  forehead  is  low  and 
narrow,  cheek-bones  high,  the  hair  straight  and  black, 
the  body  of  good  size  and  well-proportioned,  and  the 
complexion  copper-colored.  The  members  of  this  race 
are  active,  but  not  capable  of  long-continued  hard  labor. 
Though  some  tribes  exhibit  a  good  deal  of  ingenuity,  as 
a  race  they  have  never  made  much  progress  in  the  arts 
of  civilized  life. 

SUB-SECTION   II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  QUADRUMANA,  OR  MONKEYS. 

THE  Order  of  Quadrumana  comprises  all  animals  pop- 
ularly known  as  apes,  baboons,  and  monkeys.  As  the 
name  indicates,  they  have  their  four  extremities  hand- 
like,  the  fingers  being  long  and  flexible,  and  the  thumb 
opposable  to  the  fingers.  Some  of  the  animals  of  this 
order  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  the  members  of  the 
human  family ;  but  there  are  the  widest  differences  be- 
tween the  highest  of  the  Quadrumana  and  Man,  even 
when  physically  considered.  The  erect  posture  is  natural 
to  Man  ;  riot  so  with  any  of  the  Quadrumana.  Although 
some  of  them  may  stand,. and  even  walk,  somewhat  erect, 
it  is  an  unnatural  and  insecure  position,  —  the  foot  then 
resting  on  its  'outer  edge  only,  and  their  narrow  pelvis 
being  unfavorable  to  an  equilibrium.  Their  so-called 
hands,  it  is  true,  resemble  human  hands ;  but  although 
admirably  adapted  to  grasping  and  climbing,  they  are 


i6 


VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 


Fis- t6-  vastly  inferior  to  the 

perfect  hand  of  Man 
in  delicate  structure 
and  functions.  In 
many  species  the 
face  presents  some- 
thing human -like 
in  appearance ;  but 
the  elongated  muz- 
zle in  most  cases 
reminds  us  rather 
of  the  quadrupeds. 
The  Quadrumana 
are  generally  self- 
ish, crafty,  mali- 
cious, and  thievish. 
Many  species  are 
docile,  and  can  be 
trained  to  perform 
remarkable  feats  ; 
but  none  have  ever 
been  trained  to  ren- 
der useful  service 
for  man.  They  in- 
habit the  warm  re- 
gions of  both  hemi- 
spheres, and  are  most  numerous  on  the  wooded  table- 
lands. They  may  be  divided  into  three  families,  —  the 
Simiadse,  or  Simiae  catarrhinae,  comprising  all  the  true 
monkeys  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  ;  the  Cebidae,  or 
Simiae  platyrrhinas,  comprising  all  the  monkeys  of  Amer- 
ica ;  and  the  Lemuridae,  comprising  monkey-like  animals, 
which  are  known  under  the  name  of  Makis,  and  which 
are  found  most  numerous  in  Madagascar. 

,  OR  OLD-WORLD  MONKEYS. — The  Old- World 


Chimpanzee,  T.  niger,  Geoff. 


QUADRUMANA. 


monkeys  proper,  that  is,  all  except  the  Lemuridae,  are 
characterized  by  oblique  nostrils,  which  are  near  to- 
gether, a  human-like  system  of  teeth,  thirty-two  in  num- 
ber, by  the  presence  of  cheek-pouches  in  many  species, 
and  by  the  absence  in  all  cases  of  a  prehensile  tail. 
They  comprise  the  highest  of  the  Quadrumana,  or  those 
which  bear  the  closest  resemblance  to  Man,  and  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  according  to  the  absence  or 
presence  of  a  tail. 

i.  Tailless  or  Anthropoid  Apes.  The  members  of  this 
group  have  no  cheek-pouches,  no  callosities,  and  their 
fore  legs  or  arms  are  much  longer  than  the  hind  ones. 
The  Genera  are  Troglodytes,  including  the  Chimpanzee 
and  Gorilla,  and  Simla,  which  includes  the  Orang- 
Outang,  and  Hylobates,  including  the  Gibbons. 

The  Chimpanzee,  T.  niger,  Geoffroy,  of  tropical  West- 
ern Africa,  is  four  to  five  feet  high  when  erect,  cov- 
ered with  dark  hair, 
lives  in  troops,  con- 
structs huts  of  leaves 
and  branches,  arms  it- 
self with  clubs  and 
stones,  and  thus  re- 
pulses the  attacks  of 
man  and  other  ene- 
mies. When  domesti- 
cated, the  Chimpanzee 
learns  to  walk,  sit,  and 
eat  like  a  human  be- 
ing. 

The  Gorilla?,  T.  gorilla,  Savage,  of  tropical  Western 
Africa,  is  five  to  six  feet  high,  and  its  heavy  frame,  large 
and  powerful  jaws,  wary  and  ferocious  disposition,  and 
gigantic  muscular  strength,  render  it  one  of  the  most  for- 
midable of  all  the  apes. 


Skull  of  Chimpanzee,  T.  niger,  Geoff. 


i8 


VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 


Fig.  18. 


The  Orang-Outang,  5.  satyrus,  Linnaeus,  of  Borneo 
and  vicinity,  is  about  five  feet  high  when  erect,  and  is 
covered  with  coarse,  red  hair ;  the  face  is  bluish,  and 
the  hind  thumbs  are  very  short  compared  with  the 
toes.  Its  home  is  among  the  trees,  and  it  has  the 

habit  of  weav- 
ing branches 
together  in  or- 
der to  form  a 
resting-place. 

The  leading 
characteristic 
of  Genus  Hy- 
lobates — Long- 
armed  Apes,  or 
Gibbons  —  is 
very  long  arms, 
reaching  even 
to  the  ground, 
when  the  ani- 
mal is  stand- 
ing erect.  The 
Gibbons  rarely 
exceed  four  feet 
in  height,  and 
inhabit  the  se- 
cluded parts  of 
India  and  the 
Eastern  Archi- 
pelago. 

2.  Tailed  Monkeys  of  the  Old  World.  The  Genus 
Semnopithecus  —  Solemn  Apes  —  is  characterized  by  a 
long,  slender  body,  and  long,  slender,  straight  tail,  and 
by  the  absence  of  cheek-pouches.  The  solemn  apes  are 
remarkable  for  their  mildness  of  disposition  and  great 


Orang-Outang,  S.  satyrus,  Linn. 


QUADRUMANA. 


Kahau,  6".  nasica,  Schr. 


intelligence.    They  belong  to  Asia  and  the  Asiatic  Archi- 
pelago. 

The  Kahau,  S.  nasica,  Schr.,  is  celebrated  for  its  ex- 
tremely long  nose.  Fig.  19. 

The  Genus  Presbytis  is  repre- 
sented by  the  Tailed  Gibbon,  which 
inhabits  Sumatra. 

The  Genus  Cercopithecus  —  Gue- 
nons  —  is  characterized  by  a  mod- 
erately prominent  muzzle,  long  tail, 
and  the  last  of  the  inferior  molars 
with  tubercles  like  the  rest.  The 
species  are  numerous,  and  of  great 
variety  of  size  and  color.  They  live 
in  troops,  and  commit  great  havoc  in  gardens  and  culti- 
vated fields.  They  are  easily  tamed. 

The  Genus  Colobus  —  Thumbless  Apes  —  comprises  a 
few  African  species  closely  related  to  the  solemn  apes. 

The  Genus  Macacus  —  Macacos  —  is  characterized  by 
a  fifth  tubercle  on  their  last  molars,  and  their  limbs  are 
shorter  and  thicker  and  muzzle  more  projecting  than  in 
the  Guenons. 

The  Genus  Imms  —  comprising  the  Barbary  Ape  — 
differs  from  the  Macacos  mainly  in  having  a  small  tuber- 
cle instead  of  a  tail.  This  ape  inhabits  the  precipitous 
sides  of  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar. 

The  Genus  Cynocephahis  — 
Baboons  —  is  characterized  by 
a  dog-like  muzzle.  The  Ba- 
boons are  mainly  inhabitants 
of  Africa  and  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  are  large,  fero- 
cious, and  dangerous  ani- 
mals.  They  are  essentially 
constructed  to  live  upon  the  ground,  and  are  inferior  to 


Fig.  20. 


skuii  of  Baboon. 


2O  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

the  preceding  apes  and  monkeys,  approaching  more 
nearly  ordinary  quadrupeds.  They  are  known  as  Dog- 
headed  Monkeys  and  Mandrills. 

CEBID^E,  OR  NEW-WORLD  MONKEYS. — This  group  com- 
prises the  monkeys  of  the  New  World,  in  all  ninety-one 
species.  They  are  characterized  by  a  more  or  less  rounded 
head,  by  nostrils  opening  on  the  sides  of  the  nose  and 
wide  apart,  by  thirty-six  teeth,  and  in  many  cases  by  a 
long  prehensile  tail,  and  by  the  absence  of  cheek-pouches 
and  callosities  ;  they  are  in  general  smaller  and  less  fero- 
cious than  those  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  as  a 
whole  seem  to  be  inferior  to  them.  They  inhabit  almost 
the  whole  territory  from  Central  America  to  35°  or  38° 
south  latitude.  Only  one  species,  however,  is  found  west 
of  the  Andes. 

The  prehensile  tail  of  these  monkeys  is  capable  of 
being  twisted  firmly  around  branches  of  trees,  and  some 
species  are  thus  able  to  sustain  the  entire  weight  of  the 
body.  The  tail  is  also  sensitive,  and  thus  becomes  both 
an  organ  of  feeling  and  prehension,  enabling  the  pos- 
sessor to  obtain  small  objects  which  are  in  situations 
where  the  hand  cannot  be  inserted. 

i.  Sapajous,  or  those  with  a  prehensile  tail. 

The  Genus  Mycetes  —  Howlers  —  is  prominent  among 
the  New-World  monkeys,  and  found  throughout  the 
whole  length  of  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Ameri- 
can monkey  tribes.  Howlers  have  the  head  pyramidal, 
and  are  provided  with  a  vocal  apparatus  by  which  they 
produce  the  loudest  and  most  frightful  yells  or  howls, 
often  making  night  hideous.  These  monkeys  are  mostly 
of  large  size,  three  feet  long,  with  a  tail  about  as  long 
as  the  body,  and  they  are  more  ferocious  than  any  other 
American  species. 

The  Genus  A  teles — Spider  Monkeys — comprises  those 
which  inhabit  chiefly  Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  which  are 


QUADRUMANA. 


21 


Spider  Monkey,  A .  belzebutk,  Briss. 


mild,  timid,  and  slow  in  their 
movements.  They  take  their 
name  from  their  long  and 
sprawling  legs,  and  correspond 
to  the  Semnopitheci  of  Asia 
and  the  Colubi  of  Africa. 

The  Genus  Lagothrix  com- 
prises the  Gluttonous  Mon- 
keys of  the  interior  of  South 
America. 

The  Genus  Cebus — Weepers 
—  comprises  monkeys  which 
derive  their  name  from  their  plaintive  cry.  They  are 
mild  in  disposition,  quick  in  their  movements,  and  easily 
tamed.  This  genus  is  the  richest  of  all  in  species,  and  is 
most  fully  represented  in  Guiana  and  Brazil. 

2.  The  Sagouins,  or  Sakis,  or  those  with  non-prehen- 
sile tails. 

The  Genus  Pithecia  comprises  the  Fox-tailed  Monkeys, 
so  called  from  their  long  and  bushy  tails. 

The  Genus  Callithrix  comprises  the  Squirrel  Monkeys, 
which  are  of  small  size  and  prettily  colored.  They  are 
found  chiefly  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco. 

The  Gertus  Nyctipithecus  comprises  the  Night-Monkeys, 
characterized  by  their  large  nocturnal  Fig  22 

eyes. 

The  Genera  Hapale  and  Midas  com- 
prise diminutive  monkeys  of  an  agree- 
able form,  and  known  respectively  as 
Ouistitis — also  as  Jacchus — and  Tam- 
arins.  The  term  Marmoset  is  also  ap- 
plied to  the  members  of  both  genera. 
They  have  the  tail  longer  than  the 
body,  the  fur  long  and  bushy,  soft,  and 

f  .  .  .    ,  _,  Marmoset,    H.   chrysonte- 

of  beautiful  and  brilliant  colors.    They  ^  Pr  Max. 


22 


VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 


Fig.  23. 


live  chiefly  in  Brazil,  but  extend  also  to  the  northern 
countries  of  South  America. 

LEMURID^E,  OR  MAKIS.  —  This  group  comprises  Quad- 
rumana  which  differ  from  the  true  monkey  tribes  both 
in  their  more  general  resemblance  to  ordinary  quadru- 
peds, and  in  their  teeth  ;  and  their  first  hind  finger  is 
armed  with  a  pointed  raised  nail.  The  Lemuridae  com- 
prise all  the  Quadrumana  of  Madagascar  and  adjacent 
islands.  They  are  also  found  in  Central  and  West- 
ern Africa,  Southern  Asia,  and  in  the  Indian  Archipel- 
ago. 

The  Genus  Lemur — Lemurs  or  Makis  proper  —  com- 
prises those  which  have  six  inci- 
sors in  the  lower  jaw,  compressed 
and  slanting  forward  ;  four  in  the 
upper  that  are  straight,  the  canines 
trenchant,  six  molars  on  each  side 
above,  and  six  on  each  side  below. 
These  belong  wholly  to  Madagas- 
car and  vicinity,  and  feed  upon 
fruit. 

The  Genus  Indris  comprises  those 
which  have  only  four  teeth  in  the 
lower  jaw.     The  only  Species  in- 
habits Madagascar.     It  is  tamed, 
and  used  like  a  hound. 
The  Genus  Loris  has  sharper  points  to  the  grinders, 
the  body  slender,  the  tail  wanting,  and  the  eyes  near 
together.     The  Lorises  live  in  the  East  Indies,  are  noc- 
turnal, and  feed  upon  insects. 

The  Genera  Galago  —  Galagos  —  of  Africa,  and  Tar- 
sius  —  Tarsiers  —  of  the  Moluccas,  are  distinguished  from 
other  Lemuridae  by  elongated  tarsi,  tufted  tail,  large 
eyes  and  ears.  They  are  nocturnal,  and  feed  upon  in- 
sects. 


Lemur,  L.  catta,  Linn. 


CHEIROPTE 


23 


Fig.  24. 


The  Genus  Galeopithecus — Flyings-Lemurs,  so  called  — 
is  placed  here  by  De  Blainville  and  others.  The  Galeo- 
pitheci  are  .closely  related  to  the  Bats,  but  differ  from 
the  latter  by  the  fingers  of  the  for- 
ward extremities  being  furnished 
with  trenchant  nails,  which  are  no 
longer  than  those  of  the  feet,  so  that 
the  membrane  which  occupies  the 
spaces  between  them,  and  which  is 
continued  as  far  as  the  tail,  can  per- 
form no  other  functions  than  those 
of  a  parachute.  Hence  they  can- 
not properly  fly,  but  are  able,  by 
the  sustaining  membrane,  to  make 
leaps  of  several  hundred  feet  in  ex- 
tent. They  live  on  trees  in  the  In- 
dian Archipelago,  and  feed  upon  insects,  and  probably 
fruits  to  some  extent. 


Galeopithecus. 


SUB-SECTION    III. 

THE  ORDER  OF  CHEIROPTERA,  OR  BATS. 

The  Order  of  Cheiroptera  comprises  mammals  whose 
distinguishing  characteristic  consists  in  a  fold  of  skin 
which,  commencing  at  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  extend- 
ing between  the  four  members  and  fingers  of  the  anterior 
extremities,  supports  the  animal  in  the  air,  and  enables 
it  to  fly.  In  most  cases  they  have  the  arms,  forearms, 
and  fingers  excessively  long,  forming,  with  the  membrane 
mentioned  above,  true  wings  of  great  extent  of  surface, 
so  that  they  are  able  to  fly  long  and  rapidly,  and  execute 
movements  as  varied  and  complicated  as  those  of  birds. 
Their  eyes  are  excessively  small,  ears  generally  large, 
thumbs  short  and  armed  with  a  sharp  hooked  claw,  hind 
feet  weak  and  divided  into  five  toes  armed  with  trenchant 


24  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

and  pointed  nails.  They  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
and  during  the  day  remain  in  caves,  hollow  trees,  or 
other  dark  places,  suspended  by  their  hooks,  or  by  the 
nails  of  their  hind  feet.  In  cold  and  temperate  regions 
they  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy.  Although 
their  eyes  are  so  small,  their  large  ears  and  broad  wings 
possess  such  a  delicate  sensibility  that  bats  are  enabled 
to  fly  unharmed  through  the  most  winding  and  compli- 
cated passages,  and  that,  too,  after  their  eyes  have  been 
destroyed.  Bats  may  be  divided  into  two  great  groups. 

1.  Frugivorous  Bats,  or  Rousettes,  have  trenchant  in- 
cisors in  each  jaw,  grinders  with  flat  crowns,  and  feed 
chiefly  upon  fruit,  but  also  capture  birds  and  small  quad- 
rupeds.     About   forty    species    are    known,    inhabiting 
mainly  the  East  Indies  and  tropical  Africa.     They  are 
the  largest  of  the  bats,  and  the  flesh  of  some  is  used  for 
food.     The  Genus  Pteropus  is  the  principal  one. 

The  Black  Rousette,  P.  edulis,  Geoff.,  of  the  Straits 
of  Sunda  and  the  Moluccas,  is  of  a  blackish-brown  color, 
and  measures  nearly  four  feet  between  the  extremities  of 
the  wings.  Its  loud  cry  resembles  that  of  the  goose. 

2.  Insectivorous  Bats  have  three  grinders  on  each  side 
in  each  jaw,  bristled  with  conical  points,  that  are  preceded 
by  a  variable  number  of  false  molars.     About  two  hun- 
dred species  are  known. 

The  Genus  PJiyllostoma — Vampires  —  is  characterized 
by  a  membrane  in  the  form  of  a  leaf,  which  is  reflected 
crosswise  on  the  end  of  the  nose.  They  belong  wholly 
to  tropical  America,  and  have  the  reputation  of  inflicting 
severe  wounds  upon  men  and  animals,  which  they  bite  in 
order  to  suck  their  blood. 

The  Vampire  Bat,  P.  spectrum.  Linn.,  is  of  the  size 
of  a  magpie,  reddish  brown,  and  has  the  leaf  in  the  form 
of  a  funnel. 

The  Genus  Vespertilio  —  Common  Bats  —  has  the  muz- 


CHEIROPTERA.  25 

zle  without  leaf  or  other  appendages,  the  incisors  two  to 
four  above,  six  beneath,  and  the  tail  involved  in  the  mem- 
brane. This  is  the  most  numerous  genus  of  all,  its  spe- 
cies being  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  A  half-dozen 
or  more  North  American  bats  are  usually  referred  to  this 
genus. 

The  Red  Bat,  V.  noveboracensis,  Linn.,  is  three  to  four 
inches  long,  with  a  spread  of  wings  of  ten  to  twelve 
inches  ;  color  reddish  tawny. 

The  Hoary  Bat,  V. 
pruinosus,  Say,  is  over 
four  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  spread  over 
fifteen  inches ;  color 
grayish  above,  the 
throat  with  a  fawn- 

Hoary  Bat,  r.  pruinosus^  bay. 

colored  band. 

The  Little  Brown  Bat,  V.  subulattts,  Say,  is  over  three 
inches  long,  the  spread  nine  inches  ;  color  olive-brown 
above,  grayish  beneath.  - 

The  Silver-Haired  Bat,  V,  noctivagans,  Le  Conte,  is 
about  three  and  a  half  inches  long,  spread  ten  to  eleven 
inches  ;  the  color  black,  with  a  whitish  collar  across  the 
shoulders. 

The  Carolina  Bat,  V.  carolinensis,  Geoff.,  is  nearly  four 
inches  long,  the  spread  twelve  inches,  and  the  color  chest- 
nut. 

V.  monticole,  Bach.,  of  a  fulvous  color,  and  V.  virginia- 
nus,  Bach.,  sooty  brown,  are  additional  species,  from  Vir- 
ginia. 

The  Genus  Molossus,  comprising  M.  cynoccphalus  and 
M.  fuliginosus,  Cooper,  of  the  Southern  States,  is  char- 
acterized by  a  large  head  and  muzzle,  canines  two  to  four 
in  the  upper  jaw,  none  in  the  lower,  and  bifid  upper  in- 
cisors. 


26  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS.  ' 

The  Genus  Plecotus,  comprising  P.  Lccontii  of  the 
Southern  States  and  P.  Townsendii  of  Oregon,  is  char- 
acterized by  greatly  dilated  ears,  and  by  two  fleshy  crests 
between  the  eyes  and  nostrils. 

The  rapid  flittings,  turnings,  and  curious  gyrations  of 
bats,  observable  in  early  evening,  or  on  cloudy  days,  or 
in  the  deep  shade  of  woods,  are  for  the  purpose  of  cap- 
turing insects,  of  which  they  devour  immense  numbers. 

SUB-SECTION    IV. 

THE  ORDER  OF   INSECTIVORA,   OR   INSECT-EATERS. 

THE  Order  of  Insectivora  comprises  mammals  which 
feed  wholly  or  mainly  upon  worms  and  insects.  They 
are  mostly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  in  cool  climates 
many  of  them  remain  in  a  torpid  state  during  the  winter. 
Their  incisors  and  canines  vary  in  proportion  and  rela- 
tive position  ;  their  molars  are  studded  with  acute  points, 
feet  short,  plantigrade,  and  clavicles  perfect.  Wagner 
Fi  26  has  recognized  five  families  :  — 

Dermoptera,  characterized  by 
the  body  being  margined  with 
a  hairy  membrane.  Such  are 
the  Galeopithici,  already  no- 
ticed with  the  Lemuridae.  — 
Scandentia,  characterized  by  a 

Teeth  of  an  Insectivorous  Animal. 

squirrel-like  appearance,  except 

that  the  muzzle  is  attenuated  and  elongated.  They  climb 
trees  with  agility,  and  in  this  respect  differ  from  all  the 
other  Insectivora.  Such  are  the  Banxrings  and  their 
allies,  confined  wholly  to  the  Indian  Archipelago.  These 
two  families  demand  no  further  attention  in  the  pres- 
ent work  ;  but  the  three  remaining  ones  —  Soricidae  or 
Shrew  Family,  Talpidae  or  Mole  Family,  and  Aculeata 
or  Hedgehog  Family  —  which  are  universally  recognized 
as  distinct  families,  require  somewhat  special  attention. 


INSECTIVORA  !    SORICID.E.  2/ 

SORICID^E,  OR  SHREW. FAMILY. — This  Family  is  charac- 
terized by  a  general  mouse  or  rat-like  appearance,  elon- 
gated and  tapering  muzzle,  ears  with  distinct  concha,  and 
fore  feet  smaller  than  the  hind  ones.  On  either  flank, 
or  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  are  situated  peculiar  glands 
which  emit  an  unpleasant  odor.  In  true  Shrews  the  teeth 
vary  from  twenty-eight  to  thirty-two  in  number.  The 
dental  formula  is  generally  regarded  as,  incisors  --^, 
premolars  —  to  — ,  molars  — .  The  two  large  incisors 

2-2  2-2'  3-3' 

in  each  jaw  are  directed  nearly  horizontally  forwards, 
the  upper  pair  curved  into  a  hook,  and  the  lower  are 
straighter,  and  with  the  trenchant  upper  edge  more  or 
less  lobed.  Shrews  are  found  all  over  the  world,  and 
more  than  twenty  species  belonging  to  North  Amer- 
ica, and  distributed  among  three  genera,  have  been  de- 
scribed. They  live  under  rubbish,  and  in  burrows  which 
they  dig  in  the  earth. 

The  Genus  Neosorex  is  characterized  by  rather  short, 
valvular  ears,  partly  furred  on  both  surfaces. 

The  Water  Shrew,  N.  navigator, 
Cooper,  found  at  Fort  Vancouver, 
is  two  and  one  twelfth  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is  three  inches  ; 
the  color  dark  sooty-brown  above,  Water  Sh"^ 

grayish-white  beneath.  N.  navigator, 

The  Genus  Sorex  is  characterized  by  large  valvular 
ears,  concha  directed  backwards,  tail  about  as  long  as 
the  body  without  the  head,  feet  of  moderate  size  and  not 
fringed,  the  upper  forward  incisor  with  a  second  basal 
hook,  and  a  small  angular  process  on  the  inner  side  near 
the  point. 

Trowbridge's  Shrew,  vS.  Trowbridgii,  Baird,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  two  and  a  half  inches  long  to  the 
tail,  which  is  two  inches ;  the  color  sooty-brown  above, 
paler  beneath. 


28  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

The  Wandering  Shrew,  5.  vagrans,  Cooper,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  two  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is 
one  inch  and  two  thirds  ;  the  color  above  olive-brown 
varied  with  hoary,  dusky  yellowish-white  below. 

Suckley's  Shrew,  5.  Suckleyi,  Baird,  of  Western  North 
America,  is  two  and  a  quarter  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  about  one  inch  and  a  half;  the  color  light  chest- 
nut-brown above,  grayish  white  beneath. 

The  Thick-tailed  Shrew,  5.  pachyurus,  Baird,  of  Min- 
nesota to  Fort  Ripley,  is  two  and  a  quarter  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is  one  inch  and  three  quarters  ;  the 
color  light  olive-brown  above,  ashy  white  beneath. 

Forster's  Shrew,  5.  Forsteri,  Rich.,  of  Eastern  North 
America,  is  two  and  three  quarters  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  one  inch  and  two  thirds  ;  the  color  smoky-brown 
above,  pale  grayish-ash  beneath. 

Richardson's  Shrew,  S.  Richardsonii,  Bachm.,  of  North- 
ern North  America,  is  two  and  three  quarters  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is  about  one  inch  and  a  half ;  the  color 
above  rusty  iron-gray,  paler  beneath. 

The  Eared  Shrew,  S.  platyrhimis,  Wagner,  of  North- 
eastern United  States,  is  two  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  one  inch  and  a  half;  the  color  chestnut  above, 
pale  cinereous  beneath  ;  ears  large. 

Cooper's  Shrew,  5.  Cooperi,  Bach.,  of  Labrador  to  Ne- 
braska, is  about  two  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  less 
than  two  inches ;  the  color  light  chestnut-brown  above, 
lighter  beneath. 

Hayden's  Shrew,  5.  Haydeni,  Baird,  of  Western  North 
America,  is  one  inch  and  three  quarters  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  less  than  one  inch  and  a  half ;  the  color  grayish 
chestnut-brown  above,  whitish  beneath. 

The  Masked  Shrew,  £.  personattis,  Geoff.,  of  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  States,  is  one  inch  and  three  quarters  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is  over  one  inch  ;  the  color  light  chest- 
nut-brown above,  dull  white  beneath. 


INSECTIVQRA  I    MpRK}JDjE.    "  2Q 

Hoy's  Shrew,  S.  Hoyi,  Baird,  oFWisconsin,  is  one  inch 
and  three  quarters  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  one  inch  and 
a  quarter  ;  the  C9lor  olive  chestnut-brown  above,  dull 
rusty  white  beneath. 

Thompson's  Shrew,  S.  Thompsonii, 
Baird,  of  Nova  Scotia  to  Ohio,  is  two 
inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  one 

Thompson's  Shrew, 

inch  and  a  quarter  ;   the  color  dark 


olive-brown  above,  ashy  white  beneath. 

5.  palustris,  Rich.,  of  Hudson's  Bay,  is  three  and  a  half 
inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  over  two  and  a  half 
inches  ;  the  color  hoary  black  above,  ash-gray  below. 

5.  fanbripes,  Bach.,  has  been  found  only  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. It  is  two  and  one  eighth  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  one  inch  and  three  quarters  ;  the  color  brown 
above,  buff  below. 

The  Genus  Blarina  is  characterized  by  a  stout  body, 
tail  shorter  than  the  head,  or  nearly  equal  to  it,  and 
coated  with  short  bristly  hairs,  and  with  a  small  bunch 
at  the  tip.  The  hands  are  large  in  proportion  to  the 
feet,  the  palms  as  broad  or  broader  than  the  ^soles,  and 
the  latter  usually  hairy  at  the  heels.  The  fore  claws  are 
longer  than  the  hind  ones,  external  ear  and  auditory 
opening  invisible,  the  skull  short  and  broad,  anterior 
upper  incisors  with  the  points  simple,  teeth  rarely  in 
contact,  and  the  lower  anterior  process  of  the  lower  jaw 
short  and  stout. 

The  Mole  Shrew,  B.  talpoides,  Gray,  of  Nova  Scotia  to 
Georgia,  is  three  and  a  half  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which 
is  one  inch  ;  the  color  dark  ashy-gray. 

The  Short-tailed  Shrew,  B.  brevicauda,  Gray,  of  Illinois 
to  Nebraska,  is  four  inches  to  the  tail,  which  is  over  one 
inch  ;  the  color  dark  brownish-plumbeous  ;  feet  and  edge 
of  lips  whitish. 

The  Carolina  Shrew,  B.  carolinensis,  Bach.,  of  South 


3<D  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

Carolina  to  Missouri,  is  about  two  and  a  half  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is  three  quarters  of  an  inch  ;  the  color 
dark  leaden-gray. 

B.  angusticeps,  Baird,  of  Vermont,  is  over  two  and  a 
half  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  one  inch ;  the  color 
plumbeous.  The  skull  is  very  narrow. 

The  Ash-colored  Shrew,  B.  cinerea,  Bach.,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania to  Florida,  is  two  and  a  half  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  three  quarters  of  an  inch ;  the  color  above  iron- 
gray,  light  gray  beneath. 

The  Short-footed  Shrew,  B.  exilipes,  Baird,  of  Texas  to 
Mississippi,  is  less  than  two  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which 
is  over  half  an  inch  ;  the  color  above  hoary  olive-brown 
with  a  chestnut  tinge,  grayish  white  beneath. 

The  Genus  Mygale  comprises  the  Desmans,  which 
differ  from  the  Shrews  in  having  two  very  small  teeth 
between  the  two  great  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  in 
their  two  upper  triangular  and  flattened  incisors.  The 
muzzle  extends  into  a  long  and  flexible  proboscis ;  their 
feet  are  webbed,  and  they  are  aquatic  in  their  habits. 
They  inhabit  Southern  Russia,  and  one  species  is  found 
about  the  streams  of  the  Pyrenees. 

TALPID.E,  OR  MOLE  FAMILY.  —  This  family  is  charac- 
terized by  a  stout  thick  body,  with  no  visible  neck  or 
external  ears,  very  short  limbs,  greatly  expanded  fore-feet, 
and  strong  fossorial  claws.  The  tail  is  usually  short, 
sometimes  nearly  as  long  as  the  body ;  the  fur  is  soft, 
compact,  and  velvet-like.  Moles  are  found  all  over  the 
world  except  in  the  inter-tropical  regions ;  each  country, 
however,  has  its  characteristic  genus  or  genera. 

The  Genus  Scalops  is  distinguished  by  a  long,  de- 
pressed muzzle,  nostrils  at  the  extremity,  and  either 
superior  or  lateral,  hidden  eyes,  short  tail,  toes  more  or 
less  webbed  to  the  claws,  teeth  thirty-six  to  forty-four, 
and  the  two  anterior  upper  ones  very  large. 


INSECTIVORA:  TALPUXE.  31 

The  Common  Shrew- 
Mole,  5.  aquaticus,  Cuv., 
of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  is 
four  to  five  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  dark  plum-  Common  Mole-  6-  "f «<""«*>  °JV- 

beous,  the  feet  and  tail  white.  The  teeth  are  thirty-six  in 
number,  nostrils  superior,  palms  broader  than  long,  tail 
nearly  naked,  and  feet  fully  webbed.  Its  eyes  are  so  small 
and  completely  hidden  by  the  fur,  that  the  casual  ob- 
server readily  supposes  it  to  be  blind.  In  fact,  the  aper- 
ture for  the  eye  is  only  about  the  diameter  of  a  human 
hair,  and  the  eye-balls  are  smaller  than  a  grain  of  mus- 
tard-seed. It  inhabits  both  dry  and  wet  lands,  burrow- 
ing in  every  direction  at  a  little  depth  beneath  the  sur- 
face, and  throwing  up  at  intervals  the  little  hills  of  loose 
earth  so  familiar  to  every  observer.  It  burrows  with 
great  rapidity,  moves  swiftly  through  its  winding  and 
complicated  galleries,  and  its  strength  is  wonderful.  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact,  certified  by  good  authority,  that 
these  animals  come  to  the  surface  daily  at  twelve  o'clock. 

The  Silver  or  Prairie  Mole,  5.  argentatus,  Aud.  & 
Bach.,  of  the  Western  States  and  southward,  is  somewhat 
larger  than  the  last,  palms  scarcely  broader  than  long, 
tail  nearly  naked,  and  the  color  silvery  plumbeous. 

The  Oregon  Mole,  5".  Townsendii,  Bach.,  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  North  America,  is  six  inches  long,  nearly  black, 
nostrils  superior  on  the  tip  of  the  snout,  teeth  forty-four, 
and  the  tail  scantily  haired. 

The  I  lairy-tailed  Mole,  5.  Breweri,  Bach.,  of  New  Eng- 
land to  Ohio,  is  about  five  inches  long  from  the  nose  to 
the  root  of  the  tail,  dark  plumbeous,  glossed  with  ashy 
brown,  the  ear  opening  rather  large,  nostrils  lateral, 
palms  rather  narrow,  teeth  forty-four,  and  tail  densely 
hairy. 


VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 


Fig.  30. 


Fig.  31. 


Star-nosed  Mole,  — 
end  of  Muzzle. 


Skull  of  Star-nosed  Mole. 
C.  cristata,  Illig. 


The  Genus  Condylura  is  distinguished  by  the  fringe  of 
elongated  caruncles  encircling  the  end  of  the  nose. 

The  Star-nosed 
Mole,  C.  cristata, 
Illig.,  is  about  four 
inches  long  to  the 
tail,  which  is  about 
as  long  as  the  body 
without  the  head  ;  the  color  dark  brownish-black.  This 
mole  lives  near  the  banks  of  streams,  and  in  moist  mead- 
ows, where  it  digs  its  numerous  and  apparently  intermi- 
nable burrows,  but,  unlike  the  Shrew-mole,  raises  few 
hills  of  loose  earth. 

The  Genus  Talpa,  comprising  the  Common  European 
Mole,  T.  curopcea,  Linn.,  is  confined  to  Europe  and  Asia ; 
and  the  Genus  Chrysochloris  —  Golden-green  Moles  —  to 
Africa.  The  latter  presents  the  only  example  of  mam- 
mals with  splendid  metallic  tints  like  those  which  adorn 
so  many  birds,  fishes,  and  insects. 

The  Genus  Urotrichus  has  the  muzzle  prolonged  into  a 
cylindrical  tube,  terminating  in  a  simple  naked  bulb,  and 
the  nostrils  cylindrical  and  lateral.  Found  in  Northwest- 
ern America  and  in  Japan. 

ACULEATA,  OR  HEDGEHOG  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  is 

characterized 
by  the  back  be- 
ing covered  with 
spines  or  bris- 
tles, and  the  tail 
short  or  want- 
ing. The  spe- 
cies all  belong  to 
the  Old  World. 
The  Genus 

7"? 

Hedgehog,  E,  europaeits,  Linn. 


Fig.  32. 


GARNI  VORA.  33 

Hedgehogs  —  has  bristles  instead  of  hair,  and  the  skin 
of  the  back  is  furnished  with  such  muscles  that  the  ani- 
mal, by  bending  his  head  and  paws  towards  his  abdomen, 
can  shut  himself  up  as  in  a  bag,  and  present  bristles  on 
all  sides  to  the  enemy. 

The  European  Hedgehog,  E.  europ&us,  Buff.,  inhabits 
woods  and  hedges,  passes  the  winter  in  its  burrow,  and 
feeds  upon  insects  and  fruit. 

The  Genus  Centetes  —  Tenrecs  —  has  the  body  covered 
with  spines  or  bristles  like  Pig.  33. 

the  hedgehog  ;  but  the  ani- 
mals of  this  genus  have  not 
the  power  of  rolling  them- 
selves so  completely  into  a 
ball.  Three  species  inhab- 
it Madagascar.  They  paSS  Tenrec,  C.  semi-spinosus,  Cuv. 

three  months  of  the  year  in  a  state  of  lethargy,  although 
inhabiting  the  torrid  zone. 

SUB-SECTION   V. 

THE  ORDER  OF  CARNIVORA,  OR  CARNIVOROUS  ANIMALS. 

THE  Order  of  Carnivora  comprises  all  the  Mammalia 
which  feed  wholly  or  mainly  upon  flesh,  and  with  few 
exceptions  they  capture  the  animals  upon  which  they 
prey.  They  are  distinguished  from  all  other  animals, 
not  only  by  their  general  ap-  Fig.  34. 

pearance,  but  especially  by 
their  sharp  teeth  and  claws, 
and  by  their  internal  diges- 
tive apparatus.  They  have 
six  incisors  in  each  jaw,  the 
lateral  ones  the  largest,  a 
long,  stout  canine  in  each 

Side  Of  both  j  aws  j  USt  behind  tee&  of  cammmw  aannaL 

2*  C 


34  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

the  incisors,  and  a  variable  number  of  molars,  which  are 
wholly  trenchant,  or  in  part  with  tuberculous  crowns. 
Thus  the  molars  of  Carnivora  are  not  properly  grind- 
ing teeth,  but  they  cut  the  prey  like  a  pair  of  shears. 
These  animals  are  so  much  the  more  exclusively  car- 
nivorous as  their  teeth  are  more  completely  trenchant ; 
and  the  relative  proportions  of  their  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal food  may  be  calculated  from  the  extent  of  the  tu- 
berculous surfaces  of  the  teeth  as  compared  with  the 
portion  which  is  trenchant.  The  clavicles  of  Carnivora 
are  imperfect  or  wholly  wanting  ;  the  stomach  is  simple, 
and  intestines  short,  —  perfectly  adapted  to  their  easily- 
digestible  food.  The  Carnivora  are  found  all  over  the 
globe,  and  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  species  have 
been  described.  They  are  divided  into  seven  families, 
-the  Felidae  or  Cat  Family,  Hyenadae  or  Hyena  Fam- 
ily, Canidas  or  Dog  Family,  Viverridae  or  Civet  Family, 
Mustelidae  or  Weasel  Family,  Ursidae  or  Bear  Family, 
and  the  Phocidae  or  Seal  Family. 

FELIM:,  OR  CAT  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
the  Carnivora  which  are  the  most  dexterous  and  rapid  in 
their  movements,  and  endowed  with  the  keenest  senses, 
and  which  are  the  most  rapacious  and  formidable.  The 
head  is  short  and  broad,  the  teeth  and  claws  excessively 
sharp,  and  the  latter  are  concealed  in  a  sheath  while  the 
animal  is  walking  or  at  rest,  but  are  instantly  thrust  forth 
when  occasion  requires  their  use.  The  tongue  is  covered 
with  sharp  prickles  pointing  backwards  ;  the  number  of 
mature  teeth  is  twenty-eight  or  thirty,  and  the  dental  for- 
mula is,  incisors  p,  canines  ^,  premolars  and  molars  ^ 
or  ^.  The  feet  are  digitigrade,  with  five  toes  before  and 
four  behind.  The  soles  are  densely  hairy,  with  naked 
pads  on  the  ball  of  the  foot  and  under  each  toe.  The 
cushion-like  nature  of  the  bottoms  of  their  feet  enables 
these  animals  noiselessly  to  approach  their  prey,  which 
they  seize  by  a  sudden  spring. 


CARNIVORA:  FELID.E.  35 

The  Genus  Felts  —  true  Cats  —  is  characterized  by  a 
long  and  tapering,  sometimes  tufted  tail,  and  by  the 
molars,  which  are  ^. 

The  Lion,  F.  leo,  Linn.,  inhabiting  Africa  except  the 
Nile  countries,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  a  large  part  of  India, 
is  the  strongest  and  most  courageous  of  all  the  cats.  It  is 
readily  distinguished  by  its  uniform  tawny  color,  by  the 
tuft  of  hair  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  by  the  long,  flowing 
mane  of  the  male.  The  largest  individuals  are  eight  or 
nine  feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail.  The  lioness  is  smaller 
than  the  lion,  and  has  no  mane.  The  appearance  of  this 
animal  is  noble,  his  gait  stately,  his  strength  very  great ; 
his  roar  is  tremendous  and  often  terrific. 

The  Royal  Tiger,  F.  tigris,  Buff.,  of  India  and  north- 
ward, is  as  large  as  the  lion,  with  a  longer  body  and 
rounder  head.  The  color  is  lively  fawn  above,  irregu- 
larly striped  with  black ;  below,  pure  white.  There  is 
no  animal  that  he  will  not  attack,  even  engaging  in 
conflicts  with  the  lion,  which  sometimes  prove  fatal  to 
both. 

The  American  Tiger,  or  Jaguar,  F.  oyca,  Linn.,  of  Texas 
to  Patagonia  nearly,  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  last, 
clear  brownish-yellow  above ;  beneath  white,  spotted. 
On  the  sides  of  the  body  there  is  a  series  of  polygonal 
figures  with  borders  composed  of  black  blotches  enclos- 
ing a  light  area,  with  a  few  blotches  in  the  centre. 

The  Panther,  F.  pardus,  Linn.,  of  Africa  and  India,  is 
fawn-colored  above  and  white  beneath,  with  six  or  seven 
rows  of  black  spots  or  blotches  on  each  flank. 

The  Leopard,  T.  leopardus,  Linn.,  of  Africa  and  India, 
is  similar  to  the  last,  but  has  ten  rows  of  smaller  spots. 
This  and  the  Panther  are  smaller  than  the  Jaguar. 

The  Puma,  or  American  Panther,  F.  concolor,  Linn., 
of  Canada  to  Southern  Patagonia,  is  the  largest  of  the 
American  Cats  except  the  Jaguar,  being  larger  than  the 


36  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

largest  dogs,  and  weighing  in  some  cases  a  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds.  The  color  above  is  uniform  pale  brownish- 
yellow,  finely  mottled  by  dark  tips  to  all  the  hairs ;  be- 
neath, dingy  white.  It  preys  upon  deer,  sheep,  and 
smaller  quadrupeds,  and  has  been  known  to  attack  and 


Fig.  35- 


Puma,  F.  concolor,  Linn. 

kill  a  human  being.  It  is  sometimes  called  Catamount, 
and  Cougar. 

The  Ocelot,  F.  pardalis,  Linn.,  of  Texas  to  30°  south 
latitude,  is  about  the  size  of  the  American  wild-cat,  of  a 
gray  color,  with  large  fawn-colored  spots,  bordered  with 
black,  forming  oblique  bands  on  the  flank. 

The  Tiger  Cat,  F.  eyra,  Desm.,  of  Texas  to  Guiana, 
is  about  the  size  of  the  common  domestic  cat,  but  with  a 
longer  neck,  and  the  color  uniform  brownish  red. 

The  Yaguarundi,  F.  yaguarundi,  Desm.,  from  the  Rio 
Grande  to  Paraguay,  is  larger  than  the  common  cat,  with 
a  much  longer  body,  and  the  prevailing  color  a  grizzled 
brownish  gray. 

The  Domestic  Cat,  F.  catus,  Linn.,  is  originally  from 


s: 

CARNIVORA  : 

the  European  forests.  In  its  md^state  it  is  grayish- 
brown,  with  darker  transverse  unch&ations. 

The  Genus  Lynx  —  Lynxes  —  is  distinguished  from 
Felis  by  the  molars,  which  are  always  ^,  and  by  the 
tail,  which  is  scarcely  longer  than  the  head,  and  abruptly 
truncate  at  the  tip. 

The  American  Wild-Cat,  Lynx  rufus,  Raf,  is  about 
thirty  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  five  inches, 
the  fur  full  and  soft,  the  color  above  and  on  the  sides  pale 
rufous  overlaid  with  grayish ;  beneath  white,  spotted. 
The  tail  has  a  small  black  patch  above  at  the  end,  and 
the  inner  surface  of  the  ear  is  black,  with  a  white  patch. 

The  Texas  Wild-Cat,  L.  rufus,  var.  maculatus,  Aud.  & 
Bach.,  has  the  fur  short  and  rather  coarse,  and  quite  dis- 
tinct dark  spots  upon  the  back  and  sides. 

The  Red  Cat,  L.  fasciatus,  Raf,  of  Washington  Terri- 
tory, has  the  fur  soft  and  full,  the  color  above  rich  chest- 
nut-brown, ears  black  inside,  pencilled,  and  the  terminal 
"  ;rd  of  the  tail  black  above. 

Fig.  36. 


ida  Lynx,  L.  canadensis,  Raf. 


The  Canada  Lynx,  L.  canadensis,  Raf.,  is  about  forty 
inches  in  total  length,  the  general  color  grayish  hoary, 
waved  with  black,  ears  grayish  with  a  narrow  black  mar- 
gin on  the  convexity,  and  tipped  with  a  black  pencil,  and 


38  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

the  end  of  the  tail  black ;  feet  very  large,  densely  furred 
beneath  in  winter. 

HYENAD.E,  OR  HYENA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises digitigrade  Carnivora,  which  have  the  fore  legs 
longer  than  the  hind  ones,  the  claws  non-retractile,  feet 
four-toed,  tongue  rough,  the  dental  formula,  incisors  3-^, 
canines  ^,  premolars  j^~,  molars  ^.  The  premolars 
are  very  large  and  blunt,  and  these  animals  are  able  to 
crush  the  bones  of  the  largest  prey,  and  swallow  the  frag- 
ments without  the  slightest  mastication.  So  powerful 
are  the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  jaws,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  wrest  anything  from  between  their  teeth  ; 
and  among  the  Arabs  their  name  is  the  symbol  of  ob- 
stinacy. Hyenas  live  in  caves,  are  nocturnal,  voracious 
almost  beyond  the  power  of  description,  and  feed  chiefly 
upon  prey  which  they  find  dead.  Many  superstitious 
traditions  are  connected  with  them.  They  belong  to 
Africa  and  Asia,  and  the  largest  have  a  total  length  of 
five  feet  or  more. 

The  Striped  Hyena,  H.  vulgaris,  Buff.,  of  Africa  and 
India,  is  gray  with  dark  stripes,  and  a  mane  which  is 
erect  when  the  animal  is  angry. 

The  Brown  Hyena,  H.  brunnea,  Thumb.,  and  the  Spot- 
ted Hyena,  H.  crocuta,  Schr.,  inhabit  Southern  Africa. 

In  the  caves  of  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope are  found  in  abundance  the  bones  of  an  extinct 
species  of  Hyena,  H.  spelcea,  together  with  the  bones 
of  many  other  extinct  animals,  which  bear  unmistakable 
marks  of  its  teeth. 

CANID.E,  OR  DOG  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
digitigrade  Carnivora  without  retractile  claws,  and  with 
all  the  feet  apparently  four-toed  ;  the  forward  ones,  how- 
ever, with  a  rudimentary  thumb  high  up.  The  dental  for- 
mula is,  incisors  ^,  canines  ^,  premolars  ^,  molars  ^. 

The  Genus  Cams  —  Wolves  —  is  distinguished  by  the 


CARNIVORA:  CANIM:.  39 

post-orbital  process  of  the  frontal  bone  being  very  con- 
vex, and  curving  downwards,  and  by  the  circular  pupil  of 
the  eye.  Wolves  are  crafty,  ferocious,  and  greedy  ;  feeding 
upon  whatever  they  can  kill,  and  also  gorging  themselves 
upon  the  bodies  of  dead  animals,  which  they  scent  at 
great  distances.  They  hunt  in  packs,  and  are  thus  able 
to  overpower  animals  which  singly  they  could  not  master. 
In  newly  settled  districts  wolves  often  make  great  havoc 
among  sheep,  calves,  and  other  domestic  animals. 

Fig-  37- 


Wolf,  C.  occidentalis. 

The  White  and  Gray  Wolf,  C.  occidentalis,  var.  griseo- 
albus,  Rich.,  found  throughout  North  America,  is  pure 
white  to  grizzly  gray. 

The  Dusky  Wolf,  C.  occidentalis,  var.  nubilis,  Say, 
found  from  the  Missouri  to  the  Pacific,  is  light  sooty  or 
plumbeous  brown. 

The  Mexican  Wolf,  C.  occidentalis,  var.  mexicanus,  Gm., 
is  gray  and  black,  with  neck  more  maned  than  usual,  and 
a  dark  band  encircling  the  muzzle. 

The  Black  Wolf,  C.  occidentalis,  var.  ater,  Rich.,  of  Flor- 
ida and  other  Southern  States,  is  wholly  black. 

The  Red  Wolf,  C.  occidentalis,  var.  rufus,  Aud.  &  Bach., 
of  Texas,  is  mixed  red  and  black  above,  lighter  beneath. 

The  Prairie  Wolf,  or  Coyote,  C.  latrans,  Say,  of  the 


4O  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

countries  west  of  the  Mississippi,  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  common  fox,  dull  yellowish-gray  on  the  back 
and  sides,  with  a  clouding  of  black ;  under  parts  dingy 
white. 

The  Jackals,  several  species,  of  Africa  and  Asia,  are 
closely  related  to  the  wolves,  belonging  in  the  same 
genus. 

The  Domestic  Dog,  C.familiaris,  Linn.,  is  distinguished 
from  the  other  species  of  Canis  by  the  recurved  tail.  Some 
naturalists  consider  the  dog  a  wolf ;  others,  that  he  is  a 
domesticated  jackal ;  and  yet  those  dogs  which  have  be- 
come wild  again  on  desert  islands  resemble  neither  the 
one  nor  the  other  of  these.  Of  all  animals,  he  is  the  only 
one  that  has  followed  man  to  every  part  of  the  globe. 

The  Genus  Vitlpes  —  Foxes  —  is  characterized  by  a 
slender  head,  elliptical  pupil  of  the  eye,  scarcely  lobed 
upper  incisors,  and  the  post-orbital  process  of  the  frontal 
bone  is  bent  but  little  downwards,  and  the  anterior  edge 
turned  up. 

The  Common  American  Red  Fox,  V.  fitlvus,  Desm.,  is 
notorious  for  his  nocturnal  depredations  upon  farm-yards, 
whence  he  carries  away  chickens,  geese,  and  turkeys  to 
the  dense  thickets,  where  he  spends  most  of  the  daytime. 
The  general  color  is  reddish-yellow,  the  back  behind  griz- 
zled with  grayish,  throat  and  a  line  on  the  belly  and  tip 
of  tail  white,  feet  and  ears  black. 

The  Cross  Fox,  V.  fulvus,  var.  decussatus,  Desm.,  takes 
its  name  from  the  black  cross  formed  by  a  dark  band 
between  the  shoulders  crossed  by  another  over  the  shoul- 
ders. It  is  found  in  the  northeastern  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

The  Silver  Fox  or  Black  Fox,  V.  fulvus,  var.  argenta- 
tus,  Shaw,  is  entirely  black  except  the  hind  part  of  the 
back,  which  is  more  or  less  grizzly ;  and  the  tip  of  the 
tail  is  white. 


CARNIVORA:  VIVERRID.E.  41 

The  Prairie  Fox,  V.  macrourus,  Baird,  of  the  central 
parts  of  North  America,  closely  resembles  the  Red  Fox, 
but  is  larger,  has  longer  fur  and  a  longer  tail,  and  is  re- 
garded as  the  most  interesting  species  known. 

The  Swift  Fox,  V.  velox,  Aud.  &  Bach.,  of  Oregon,  is 
smaller  than  the  Red  Fox,  the  general  color  yellowish 
gray  above,  back  conspicuously  grizzled,  sides  and  por- 
tions of  the  legs  pale  reddish-yellow ;  the  under  parts 
whitish,  tail  tipped  with  black. 

The  Arctic  Fox,  V.  lagopus,  Rich.,  of  the  Arctic  re- 
gions, is  smaller  than  the  Red  Fox,  of  a  white  color,  the 
tail  very  full  and  bushy,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  densely 
furred. 

The  Gray  Fox,  V.  virginianus,  Rich.,  of  the  United 
States,  is  mixed  hoary  and  black. 

The  Coast  Fox,  V.  littoralis,  Baird,  of  the  island  of 
San  Miguel,  coast  of  California,  is  the  smallest  North 
American  fox,  being  scarcely  larger  than  the  common 
house  cat ;  the  color  similar  to  that  of  the  gray  fox. 

ViV£RRiD,E,  OR  CIVET  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises small  animals  of  the  average  size  of  the  domestic 
cat,  but  more  elongated,  and  with  a  more  pointed  muzzle, 
and  with  a  long  tail.  In  most  cases  the  feet  are  digiti- 
grade,  with  hairy  soles  and  retractile  claws.  The  dental 
formula  is,  incisors  ^,  canines  ~,  premolars  — ,  molars 
•^|.  The  dentition  differs  from  that  of  the  dog  family  in 
having  one  tubercular  true  molar  less  on  each  side  of  the 
lower  jaw.  They  secrete  in  a  sort  of  pouch  or  gland  a 
substance  formerly  much  used  in  perfumery,  and  which 
was  long  an  important  article  of  commerce.  With  one 
exception,  they  belong  to  the  Old  World. 

The  Genus  Bassaris  is  represented  in  North  America 
by  the  Civet  Cat,  B.  astuta,  Licht,  of  Texas  to  California. 
This  animal  is  about  the  size  of  the  domestic  cat,  but 
more  slender ;  the  color  above  brownish  yellow  mixed 


42  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

with  gray  beneath,  and  the  tail 
white,  the  »latter  with  six  to 
eight  black  rings.  They  are 
arboreal,  easily  tamed,  and  fa- 
vorite pets  with  the  miners. 

The  Genus  Viverra,  accord- 
ing to  its  old  limits,  comprises 
the  four  following  species. 

Civet  Cat,  B.  astuta.  Licht.  /-,->•.        ^. .  Tr  T  . 

The  Civet,  V.  cwetta,  Lmn., 

of  Africa,  is  ash-colored,  irregularly  barred  and  spotted 
with  black.  There  is  a  mane  along  the  whole  back  and 
tail  which  the  animal  raises  at  will.  This  species  furnishes 
the  musky  substance  called  civet. 

The  Common  Genet,  V.  genetta,  Linn.,  of  Southern 
Europe  to  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  gray,  spotted  with 
brown  or  black  ;  the  tail  annulated  with  black  and  white. 
Its  skin  is  an  important  article  of  trade. 

The  Mangouste  or  Ichneumon,  V.  ichneumon,  Linn.,  of 
Egypt,  is  about  the  size  of  the  domestic  cat,  very  slender, 
of  a  gray  color,  tail  long  and  terminated  with  a  black  tuft. 
It  hunts  chiefly  the  eggs  of  the  crocodile,  but  also  preys 
upon  all  sorts  of  small  animals.  It  is  kept  in  houses,  like 
the  common  cat.  The  Europeans  at  Cairo  call  it  Pha- 
raoh's Rat. 

The  Mangouste,  V.  mungos,  Linn.,  of  India,  smaller 
than  the  last,  is  celebrated  for  its  combats  with  the  most 
dangerous  serpents,  and  for  having  led  us  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  Ophiorhiza  mungos  as  an  antidote  for  their 
poison. 

MUSTELID.E,  OR  WEASEL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises elongated  and  slender-bodied  animals,  with  five- 
toed  plantigrade  or  digitigrade  feet,  and  with  a  single 
tubercular  molar  tooth  only  on  either  side  of  each  jaw. 
The  Mustelidae  comprise  all  the  animals  known  as  Fish- 
ers, Martens,  Sables,  Weasels,  Minks,  Otters,  Badgers,  and 


CARNIVORA:  MUSTELID^E.  43 

Skunks.  Nearly  all  of  this  family  have  glands  which 
secrete  a  fetid  liquid,  and  in  some  cases  of  a  most  dis- 
agreeable odor. 

The  Genus  Mustela  —  Martens — is  characterized  by  a 
slender  body,  long  tail,  and  thirty-eight  teeth,  the  formula 
being,  incisors  — ,  canines  — ,  premolars  — ,  molars  — . 

3~3  I-I       *  4~4  2-2 

They  are  arboreal  in  their  habits,  and  some  of  them  yield 
furs  of  great  value. 

The  Fisher,  M.  Pennantii,  Erxl.,  of  the  United  States, 
is  the  largest  known  species  of  this  genus,  being  two  feet 
long  to  the  tail,  which  is  more  than  a  foot  in  length  ;  the 
legs,  belly,  tail,  and  hind  part  of  the  back  are  black ;  the 
back  towards  the  head  has  an  increasing  proportion  of 
grayish. 

The  American  Sable  or  Pine  Marten,  M.  americana, 
Turton,  of  Northern  Maine  and  of  the  Adirondac  Moun- 
tains, N.  Y.,  thence  northward  and  westward,  is  seven- 
teen inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  ten  inches ; 
the  general  color  reddish-yellow  clouded  with  black,  legs 
and  tail  blackish,  a  broad  yellowish  patch  upon  the 
throat  widening  below  so  as  to 

FlS-  39- 

touch  the  legs,  the  central  line  be- 
low sometimes  yellowish,  and  the 
feet  are  densely  furred.  The  fur  is 
very  full  and  soft,  with  many  long 
hairs  interspersed.  The  highly 
prized  fur  known  as  Hudson  Bay  American  Sabie, 

Sable  is  furnished  by  this  species.         M-  americana> Turton- 

The  Pine  Marten,  M.  martes,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  is 
brown,  with  a  yellow  spot  under  the  throat.  • 

The  Common  Marten,  M.  foina,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  is 
brown,  with  the  whole  under  part  of  the  throat  and  neck 
white. 

The  Sable,  M.  zibellina,  Pall.,  of  Siberia,  so  celebrated 
for  its  rich  fur,  known  as  the  Russian  Sable,  is  brown, 


44  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

spotted  with  gray  about  the  head,  and  its  feet  furred.  It 
inhabits  the  coldest  regions,  and  the  hunting  to  obtain  it, 
in  the  midst  of  winter  and  tremendous  snows,  is  attended 
with  the  greatest  privations  and  dangers. 

The  Genus  Puforius — Weasels  —  is  characterized  by  a 
very  slender  body,  long  tail,  and  thirty-four  teeth,  the  den- 
tal formula  being,  incisors  jf3,  canines  ^~t  premolars  — , 
molars  —.  The  lower  sectorial  tooth  is  without  an  in- 
ner tubercle. 

rig.  4o.  The  Least  Weasel,  P.  pusillus,  Aud. 

&  Bach.,  from  New  York  to  Puget's 
Sound,  is  six  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which   is   less   than   two   inches ;   the 
weasel.  color  brown  above,  white  beneath. 

The  Small  Brown  Weasel,  P.  Cicognonii,  orfusats,  Aud. 
&  Bach.,  of  North  America,  is  about  eight  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is  three  inches ;  the  color  in  summer, 
brown  above,  whitish  beneath  ;  in  winter,  white  ;  the  tail 
with  the  tip  black. 

The  Little  Ermine,  P.  Richardsonii,  Bonap.,  of  North 
America,  is  eight  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  over 
five  inches ;  the  color  in  summer  dark  chestnut-brown 
above,  whitish  beneath  ;  in  winter  white,  tail  with  a 
black  tip. 

The  Common  White  Weasel,  P.  noveboracensis,  De  Kay, 
of  the  United  States,  is  about  ten  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  about  six  inches,  the  color  in  summer  chestnut 
brown  above,  whitish  beneath  ;  in  winter,  white  ;  tail 
tipped  with  black  one  third  of  its  length. 

The  Long-tailed  Weasel,  P.  longicauda,  Rich.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  about  eleven  inches  long  to  the 
tail,  which  is  nearly  seven  inches ;  the  color  in  summer, 
light  olive-brown  above,  brownish-yellow  beneath  ;  in  win- 
ter, white  ;  the  tail  with  a  black  tip  about  one  fourth  its 
length. 


CARXIVORA  I    MUSTELID^.  45 

Kane's  Ermine,  P.  Kaneii,  Baird,,of  Behring's  Straits 
and  Siberia,  is  eight  and  a  half  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  about  four  inches ;  the  color  in  summer,  brown 
above,  in  winter  white ;  the  tail  tipped  with  black  one 
half  its  length. 

The  Bridled  Weasel,  P.  frenatus,  Aud.  &  Bach.,  of 
Texas  and  Mexico,  is  eleven  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  about  seven  inches  ;  the  general  color  above 
chestnut-brown,  yellowish  beneath,  and  the  tail  tipped 
with  black.  The  head  above  is  dark  brown,  with  three 
white  marks. 

The  Yellow-cheeked  Weasel,  P.  xanthogenys,  Gray,  of 
California,  is  closely  related  to  the  last. 

The  Common  Mink,  P.  vison,  Fig.  41. 

Rich.,  of  the  United  States,  is 
about  seventeen  inches  long  to 
the  tail,  which  is  about  half  the 
length  of  the  body  ;  the  general 
color  dark  brownish -chestnut, 
tail  nearly  black,  and  the  end 
of  the  chin  white. 

The    Little   Black  Mink,  P.  Mink» p-  ****>  Rich- 

nigrescais,  Aud.  &  Bach.,  of  the  United  States,  is  smaller 
than  the  last,  the  color  chestnut-brown  glossed  with 
black  ;  the  tail  almost  entirely  black,  and  the  end  of  the 
chin  white.  This  species  furnishes  the  most  valuable  of 
the  mink  furs.  The  furs  sold  under  the  name  of  Ameri- 
can Sable,  are  mink. 

The  European  Ermine,  P.  erminca,  Linn.,  celebrated 
for  its  valuable  and  well-known  fur,  is  about  ten  inches 
long  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  five  inches ;  the  color 
olivaceous-brown  in  summer,  white  in  winter,  and  the 
tail  has  a  long  black  tip. 

The  Ferret,  P.  furor,  Linn.,  of  Spain  and  Barbary,  is 
celebrated  from  its  being  employed  to  ferret  out  rabbits 


46 


VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 


from  their  holes.  The  Common  Polecats  of  the  Old 
World  all  belong  to  this  genus. 

The  Genus  Gulo  —  Gluttons  —  is  characterized  by  a 
stout  body,  bushy  tail,  densely  hairy  soles  with  six  naked 
pads,  and  thirty-eight  teeth  ;  the  formula  for  which  is  the 
same  as  in  the  Mustelidae. 

The  Wolverine,  G.  hiscus,  Sabine,  of  Northern  New 
York,  thence  northward  and  westward,  is  about  three  feet 
long  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  which  is  over  a  foot  in  length  ; 

Fig.  42- 


Wolverine,  G.  luscus,  Sabine. 


the  color  dark  brown,  the  tail,  legs,  and  under  parts  black. 
There  is  a  lighter  broad  band  on  the  flanks  passing  over 
the  base  of  the  tail  and  rump,  and  a  grizzled  light  patch 
upon  the  temples.  The  most  extravagant  stories  have 
been  told  of  this  interesting  animal.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that,  for  its  size,  it  is  very  powerful,  ferocious,  and 
exceedingly  voracious.  It  is  very  troublesome  to  the 
sable-hunters,  by  breaking  up  their  wooden  traps  and 
destroying  the  bait,  or  game  ;  it  also  destroys  caches  of 
provisions.  The  Glutton  of  Russia  is  a  closely  related 
species. 

The  Genus  Lutra  —  Otters  —  is  characterized  by  a  flat 
head,  elongated  body,  short,  palmated  feet,  distinct  digits, 


CARNIVORA.:    MUSTELID^E. 


47 


the  central  longer  than  the  exterior  ones,  and  tail  de- 
pressed and  rounded  at  the  sides.  Otters  are  aquatic, 
and  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  feed  upon 
fish,  which  they  pursue  with  such  dexterity  that  few  are 
swift  enough  to  elude  them.  Otters  have  a  singular 
and  amusing  habit  of  sporting.  Selecting  a  bank  of 
snow  in  winter,  or  a  clayey  bank  in  summer,  they  scram- 
ble to  the  top,  and  then  slide  head  foremost  to  the  bot- 
tom. If  their  sliding-place  leads  into  the  river,  as  is 
generally  the  case,  they  go  plump  into  the  water,  whence 
they  quickly  come  forth  again  to  repeat  an  operation 
which  evidently  gives  them  great  satisfaction. 

The  Ameri- 
can Otter,  L.ca- 
nadensis,  Sab., 
of  North  Amer- 
ica east  of  the 
Rocky  Moun- 
tains, is  about 
four  and  a  half 
feet  long,  in- 
cluding the  tail, 
which  is  eigh- 
teen inches  in 
length.  The 
color  is  liver- 
brown  above, 
slightly  lighter  beneath,  sides  of  head  and  neck  dirty- 
whitish.  The  fur  is  of  two  kinds ;  one  long,  somewhat 
coarse,  and  scattered,  the  other  shorter,  fine,  and  dense. 

The  California  Otter,  L.  calif owica,  Gray,  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  closely  resembles  L.  canadensis. 

The  Genus  Enhydra  comprises  the  Sea  Otter,  E.  ma- 
rina, Flem.,  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  both  hemispheres, 
which  reminds  us  of  the  seals.  It  is  about  twice  the 


American  Otter,  L.  canadensis^  Sabine. 


48  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

size  of  the  common  otter,  the  color  blackish,  fur  very 
long  and  soft,  and  very  valuable. 

The  Genus  Mephitis — Skunks — is  characterized  by  an 
elongated  body,  pointed  nose,  fossorial  feet,  long  and  bushy 
tail,  upper  hind  molar  very  large  and  nearly  square,  and 
black  color  with  white  markings.  The  skunks  are,  more- 
over, characterized  among  all  other  animals  by  their  well- 
known  and  almost  intolerable  odor,  which  they  emit  when 
disturbed.  The  dental  formula  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  Putorius.  Skunks  are  nocturnal,  and  feed  upon  beetles 
and  other  small  animals,  and  upon  eggs.  They  walk  on 
most  of  the  sole  of  the  foot,  with  the  back  much  curved 
and  tail  erect.  Five  species  are  found  in  North  America. 
The  White-backed  Skunk,  M.  mesoleuca,  Licht,  of 
Texas  and  Mexico. 

The  Long-tailed  Skunk,  M.  varians,  Gray,  of  Texas 
and  Mexico. 

The  California  Skunk,  M.  occidentalis,  Baird,  of  the 
western  coast  of  the  United  States. 

The  Common  Skunk,  M.  chinga, 
Tied.,  of  the  United  States  north 
of  Texas  and  east  of  the  Missouri 
plains. 

The  Little  Striped  Skunk,  M. 
bicolor,  Gray,  of  Southern  Texas 
and  California. 

The  Genus  Taxidea  —  Badgers 
—  is  characterized  by  a  stout,  ro- 
bust, depressed  body,  very  short  tail, 

Skunk,  M.  chin°a,  Tied.  ,  ,  ,    r  . 

much  enlarged  fore  claws  adapted 
to  digging,  and  by  a  wedge-shaped  skull. 

The  American  Badger,  T.  americana,  Waterh.,  of  Ar- 
kansas, thence  northward  and  westward,  is  rather  less 
than  two  feet  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  six  inches ; 
the  general  color  grayish  above,  light  beneath.  The 


CARNIVORA:  URSID.E. 


49 


American  Badger,  T.  americana,  Waterh. 


hair  is  long,  espe-  Fis-  «• 

cially  on  the  hind 
part  of  the  body, 
whence  it  extends 
so  far  towards  the 
extremity  of  the 
tail  as  almost  to 
conceal  the  latter ; 
and  the  ears  ap- 
pear as  if  they  had 
been  clipped.  The 
Mexican  Badger,  7!  Berlandieri,  Baird,  is  a  closely  related 
species.  Badgers  live  in  burrows,  and  dig  with  astonish- 
ing rapidity. 

URSID.E,  OR  BEAR  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
the  true  plantigrade  carnivora,  —  those  which  walk  on 
the  whole  sole  of  the  foot.  They  are  five-toed,  and  the 
toes  are  distinctly  separate.  Their  teeth  are  the  same 
in  number  as  those  of  the  Dog  Family,  but  the  sectorial 
teeth  and  the  molars  behind  them  are  tuberculated.  They 
have  no  ccecum.  Though  carnivorous,  they  feed  more 
or  less  upon  vegetable  food.  Many  of  the  species  are 
ready  climbers.  Those  which  inhabit  cold  climates  pass 
the  winter  in  a  torpid  state.  The  Ursidae  comprise  the 
Raccoons,  Pandas,  and  Bears. 

The  Genus  Procyon  —  Raccoons  —  is  characterized  by 
a  stout  body,  pointed  muzzle,  and  moderately  long  -tail. 

The  Common  Rac-  Fig  46 

coon,  P.  lotor,  Storr., 
of  the  United  States, 
is  less  than  two  feet 
long  to  the  tail,  which 
is  about  a  foot ;  the  gen- 
eral color  light  gray, 

tinged  with  pale  rusty  Common  Raccoon>  ^  lotor,  StorT. 

3  D 


5O  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

across  the  shoulders,  and  much  overlaid  with  black-tipped 
hairs.  The  under  parts  are  of  a  similar  gray,  but  without 
the  black  tips ;  and  over  the  whole  body  the  dull-sooty 
under-fur  shows  through.  The  tail  has  five  distinct  black 
rings,  and  a  tip  of  the  same  color,  the  interspaces  being 
grayish-white.  The  end  of  the  muzzle  is  whitish,  and 
there  is  a  black  patch  upon  the  cheek  and  another  be- 
hind the  ear.  The  Raccoon  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits, 
and  feeds  upon  roots,  birds,  and  other  small  animals.  It 
is  easily  tamed,  and  is  said  to  dip  its  food  in  water  before 
eating  it. 

The  California  Raccoon,  P.  Heniandezii,  Wagler,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  larger  than  P.  lotor. 

The  Genus  Ailurus  comprises  the  Shining  Panda,  A. 
refulgens,  Fred.  Cuv.,  of  Northern  India,  of  the  size  of 
the  common  cat,  the  fur  soft  and  thickly  set,  the  color 
above  of  the  most  brilliant  cinnamon-red,  behind  more  of 
a  fawn  color,  the  head  whitish,  and  the  tail  marked  with 
brown  rings  ;  beneath  black.  Cuvier  calls  this  the  most 
beautiful  of  known  quadrupeds. 

The  Genus  Ursus — Bears — is  characterized  by  a  large, 
thick,  clumsy  body,  broad  head,  short  tail,  wholly  planti- 
grade feet,  with  naked  soles  and  long  nails.  The  dental 
formula  is,  incisors  3~,  canines  ^>  premolars  ^  molars 
^.  Four  North  American  species  have  been  described. 

The  Grizzly  Bear,  U.  horribilis,  Ord.,  of  the  plains  of 
the  Upper  Missouri  to  California,  is  six  to  eight  feet  in 
length,  hair  coarse,  an  erect  mane  between  the  shoulders, 
and  the  color  grizzly.  The  feet  are  very  large,  and  the 
fore  claws  are  twice  as  long  as  the  hind  ones,  and  on  the 
largest  individuals  are  six  inches  in  length.  This  animal 
is  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  most  ferocious  of  all  the 
Bear  tribe.  When  excited  by  hunger  or  anger,  it  attacks 
man  or  any  animal  it  can  overtake.  Even  the  Bison 
sometimes  falls  a  victim  to  its  ferocity,  and  is  dragged 


CARNIVORA:  URSID.E. 


Grizzly  Bear,  U.  horribilis,  Ord. 

away  whole  to  be  eaten  at  leisure.  The  Grizzly  is  not 
easily  brought  down,  unless  shot  through  the  head  or 
heart,  and  when  wounded  is  exceedingly  dangerous  to 
the  hunter. 

The  Brown  Bear,  U.  arctos,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  closely 
resembles  the  last,  but  is  regarded  as  distinct. 

The  Black  Bear,  U.  americanus,  Pallas,  of  North  Amer- 
ica generally,  weighs  from  two  hundred  to  four  hundred 
pounds,  is  of  a  uniform  black  or  deep  brown  color,  and 


52  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

the  hair  is  comparatively  soft  and .  glossy.  Under  ordi* 
nary  circumstances  this  bear  is  not  very  ferocious,  seldom 
attacking  man  unless  wounded  or  much  excited  by  hunger. 
The  Black  Bear  subsists  upon  roots,  berries,  and  living 
animals.  The  Cinnamon  Bear  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  Oregon  is  probably  a  variety  of  this  species. 

The  White  or  Polar  Bear,  U.  maritimus.  Linn.,  of  the 
Arctic  regions  of  both  hemispheres,  is  eight  feet  long, 
and  attains  the  weight  of  one  thousand  to  fifteen  hun- 
dred pounds.  It  is  snow-white,  wholly  carnivorous,  and 
feeds  upon  seals  and  other  animals. 

PHOCID^:,  OR  SEAL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
amphibious  mammals,  —  the  Seals  and  the  Walrus. 
Though  they  spend  more  or  less  time  upon  the  land, 
their  home  is  in  the  sea.  They  have  an  elongated, 
muscular,  flexible  body,  clothed  with  short  thickly-set 
hair.  Their  locomotive  appendages  are  the  same  in 
number  as  those  of  other  Carnivora,  but  are  so  enveloped 
in  the  general  covering  of  the  body  that  the  only  service 
they  can  render  upon  land  is  to  enable  the  animal  to 
crawl ;  but,  as  the  intervals  of  the  toes  are  filled  with  a 
stout  membrane,  they  become  excellent  paddles  for  swim- 
ming. The  hind  locomotive  members  project  backwards 
nearly  on  a  line  with  the  body,  and  appear  to  the  casual 
observer  somewhat  like  the  tail  of  a  fish  placed  horizon- 
tally. Their  toes  are  all  terminated  with  pointed  nails. 

The  Genus  PJwca  is  the  one  in  which  Linnaeus  included 
all  the  seals,  but  later  the  various  species  have  been  dis- 
tributed among  several  genera. 

Seals  have  six  or  four  incisors  above,  four  or  two  below, 
canines  and  grinders  to  the  number  of  twenty-two  or 
twenty-four,  all  trenchant  or  conical,  and  without  any 
tuberculous  part  whatever.  The  head  resembles  that 
of  the  dog,  whose  intelligence  and  expressive  look  it 
also  possesses.  Seals  are  easily  tamed,  and  soon  become 


CARNIVORA  :    PHOCHXE.  53 

attached  to  those  who  feed  them.  They  live  upon  fish 
and  other  aquatic  animals,  eat  in  the  water,  and  close 
their  nostrils  by  a  sort  of  valve  when  they  dive.  A  dozen 
or  more  species  have  been  described. 

The      Common  Fig.  48. 

Seal,  Ph.  vitulina, 
Linn.,  abundant  in 
the  cool  and  frigid 
regions,  is  three  to 
five  feet  long,  yel- 
lowish-gray, and 

more  or  less  shaded  and  spotted  with  brown  according 
to  age.  The  eyes  are  large,  dark,  and  lustrous. 

The  Harp  Seal-,  Ph.  groeiilandica,  Hooded  Seal,  Ph. 
cristata,  Gm.,  and  Bearded  Seal,  Ph.  barbata,  Fabr.,  are 
other  species  from  the  Northern  regions. 

The  Monk  Seal,  Ph.  monachus,  Gm.,  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, is  ten  to  twelve  feet  long,  and  is  the  one  best  known 
to  the  ancients. 

The  Elephant  Seal,  Ph.  leonina,  Linn.,  of  the  Southern 
Ocean,  is  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  long,  and  the  muzzle 
of  the  male  is  terminated  with  a  wrinkled  snout,  which 
becomes  inflated  when  he  is  angry.  This  seal  is  hunted 
for  its  oil,  of  which  it  yields  a  large  quantity. 

The  Sea  Lion,  Ph.  jtibata,  Gm.,  of  the  Pacific,  is  fifteen 
to  twenty  feet  in  length. 

The  Sea  Bear,  Ph.  ursina,  Gm.,  of  the  Arctic  regions, 
is  eight  feet  long. 

The  Genus  Trichecus  comprises  the  Walrus  or  Morse, 
T.  rosmartis,  Linn.,  of  the  Arctic  regions,  which  resembles 
the  large  seals,  but  is  especially  distinguished  from  them 
by  having  no  canine  or  incisor  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  and 
by  having  the  upper  canines  enormously  developed,  form- 
ing tusks  which  in  many  cases  are  two  feet  long.  The 
Walrus  is  of  the  size  of  the  largest  ox,  and  attains  the 


54  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

length  of  twenty  feet,  and  is  covered  with  short  brown 
hair.  It  uses  its  strong  tusks  to  lift  itself  from  the 
water  upon  the  rocks  or  ice-banks,  where  large  numbers 
bask  together  in  the  sunshine.  The  tusks  also  serve  as 
means  of  defence,  and  for  obtaining  sea-weed,  which  with 
fish  constitutes  its  food.  When  attacked  it  is  fierce,  and 
becomes  a  formidable  antagonist,  especially  if  attended 
by  young.  It  readily  smashes  a  boat  with  its  tusks,  or, 
rising  in  the  water,  hooks  them  over  the  side,  and  upsets  it. 

SUB-SECTION   VI. 

THE  ORDER  OF  MARSUPIALIA,   OR   MARSUPIALS. 

The  Order  of  Marsupialia  comprises  animals  whose 
special  characteristic  is  that  their  young  are  brought  forth 
in  an  exceedingly  premature  state  of  development,  and,  in 
most  instances,  are  received  into  a  peculiar  pouch  on  the 
abdomen  of  the  mother,  where  they  are  nourished  till 
they  have  acquired  a  degree  of  development  correspond- 
ing to  that  in  which  other  mammals  are  born.  The 
young,  after  they  are  able  to  walk,  also  resort  to  the 
pouch  of  the  mother  for  safety  in  times  of  danger.  With 
the  exception  of  one  family  found  in  America,  the  Marsu- 
pials are  all  confined  to  Australia  and  islands  immediately 
adjacent ;  and  it  is  a  singular  fact,  that  all  the  mammals 
of  Australia,  over  a  hundred  species  of  which  are  known, 
belong  to  this  order. 

DIDELPHID^,  OR  OPOSSUM  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  all  the  Marsupials  of  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica, and  is  peculiar  to  this  continent.  Opossums  are 
mostly  small  animals,  the  largest  scarcely  exceeding  the 
common  cat,  and  the  smallest  but  little  larger  than  a 
mouse.  They  are  plantigrade  and  five-toed.  The  dental 
formula  is,  incisors  ^,  canines  ^,  premolars  ^,  molars 
^-4.  Their  food  consists  of  birds,  birds'  eggs,  insects,  and 


MARSUPIALIA  I    DJADELPHID^E. 


55 


Fig.  49- 


Opossum,  D .  • 
Shaw, 


other  small  animals.  The  tail  is  long,  prehensile,  and 
nearly  naked.  More  than  twenty  species  are  known.  In 
some,  the  pouch  is  rudimentary. 

The  Genus  Didelphys  comprises 
the  Common  Opossum,  D.  virginiana, 
Shaw,  of  the  United  States  west  of  the 
Hudson.  It  is  twenty  inches  long  to 
the  tail,  which  is  about  fifteen  inches. 
The  hair  is  whitish  with  brown  tips,  im- 
parting a  dusky  shade.  It  lives  upon 
trees,  and  feeds  upon  fruits,  eggs,  and 
small  animals.  Its  movements  are  not 
rapid,  and  it  often  lies  motionless  for 
hours  in  the  warm  sunshine.  When 
captured,  or  slightly  wounded,  it  has 
the  habit  of  feigning  itself  dead,  and 
by  this  artifice  often  escapes  from  the  inexperienced  hun- 
ter. The  young,  which  at  birth  weigh  only  three  or  four 
grains,  are  placed  in  the  pouch,  where  they  remain  grow- 
ing very  rapidly  till  four  or  five  weeks  old,  when  they 
begin  to  venture  forth,  but  for  a  long  time  keep  close  to 
the  mother,  generally  clinging  to  her  by  their  tails. 

The  Texas  Opossum,  D.  califomica,  Bennet,  is  found 
from  Texas  westward. 

The  Genus  Cheironectes  is  characterized  by  palmated 
feet.  It  is  represented  by  a  small  species  in  Brazil. 

The  Genus  Thylacinus  is  distinguished  from  the  true 
Opossums  by  two  incisors  less  in  each  jaw,  a  non-prehen- 
sile tail,  and  the  absence  of  a  thumb  on  the  hind  feet.  A 
species  about  the  size  of  a  wolf,  but  with  shorter  legs,  is 
found  in  Australia.  An  extinct  species  has  been  found 
imbedded  in  the  plaster  quarries  of  Paris,  in  France. 

DASYURIM:,  OR  DASYURUS  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  those  which  have  two  incisors  and  four  grind- 
ers less  in  each  jaw  than  Opossums,  a  non-prehensile  tail, 


56  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

and  the  thumb  of  the  hind  feet  rudimentary  or  want- 
ing. They  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  mouse  to  that  of 
a  wolf. 

PARAMELEID^E  comprise  burrowing  marsupials. 
PHALANGISTID.E,  OR  PHALANGER  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  those  which  have  the  two  toes  next  the 
thumb  united  by  a  membrane  as  far  as  the  last  phalanx. 
Such  are  the  true  Phalangers  of  the  Moluccas,  which 
live  upon  trees,  and,  according  to  Cuvier,  at  the  sight 
of  man,  suspend  themselves  by  the  tail,  and,  if  gazed  at 
steadily,  at  length  fall  to  the  ground ;  and  the  Flying 
Phalangers  of  Australia,  which  have  the  skin  of  the 
flanks  extended  between  the  legs,  which  enables  them 
to  suspend  themselves  in  the  air  and  make  greater  leaps. 
The  species  of  this  family  vary  in  size  from  .that  of  a 
mouse  to  that  of  a  cat,  or  larger. 

MACROPODID.E,  OR  KANGAROO  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 

comprises  Mar- 
supials which  are 
specially  charac- 
terized by  the  re- 
markable devel- 
opment of  their 
hinder  parts. 
The  hind  legs 
and  the  tail  are 
long  and  power- 
ful ;  the  fore  legs 
very  short  and 
Kangaro°-  weak,  and  little 

used  in  progression,  which  is  accomplished  mainly  by 
leaping,  for  which  their  whole  structure  is  most  admira- 
bly fitted.  They  sit  mainly  upright  upon  their  haunches, 
supported  in  part  by  the  tail.  They  feed  upon  fruits'and 
plants,  are  perfectly  harmless,  and  easily  tamed.  Forty 


Fig.  50. 


RODE.NTIA.       ^^*«W4JU&-        57 

species  are  known,  varying  from  the  size  of  a  hare  to  that 
of  a  deer,  or  larger. 

The  Genus  Macropus  includes  the  Greater  Kangaroo, 
M.  major,  Shaw,  which  is  the  largest  animal  of  Australia. 
It  is  six  feet  high  as  it  sits  upright,  of  a  grayish  color,  and 
makes  leaps  of  enormous  extent.  The  young,  at  birth, 
are  only  an  inch  long ;  they  resort  to  the  pouch  even 
after  -  they  are  old  enough  to  graze,  which  they  actually 
accomplish  in  that  position  while  the  mother  herself  is 
feeding. 

PHASCOLOMYIM:,  OR  WOMBAT  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily  comprises  Fig.  5I. 
animals    hav- 
ing large,  flat 
heads,     short 
legs,     and     a 
body  that  ap- 

pears  as  if  crushed,  and  without  a  tail.  They  have  two 
incisors  in  each  jaw,  similar  to  those  of  Rodents,  and  each 
of  their  grinders  has  two  transverse  ridges.  They  are 
sluggish,  feed  upon  grass,  and  burrow  in  the  ground. 
The  Wombat  is  of  the  size  of  a  badger,  and  both  this 
and  LipuntSj  a  closely  related  genus,  live  in  Australia. 

SUB-SECTION   VII. 

THE  ORDER  OF  RODENTIA,  OR  GNAWERS. 

The  Order  of  Rodentia  comprises  all  the  gnawing 
Mammalia.  They  are  readily  distinguished  by  their 
teeth.  In  each  jaw  they  have  two  chisel-shaped  inci- 
sors, between  which  and  the  molars  there  is  a  wide  space 
without  teeth.  The  incisors  are  covered  with  enamel 
only  in  front,  so  that  their  posterior  edges  wear  away 
faster  than  the  anterior  edges,  thus  always  keeping  these 
teeth  sharp,  however  much  they  are  used ;  and  they 


VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

grow  at  the  base  as  fast  as  they  wear 
away  at  the  summit.  The  lower  jaw  is 
articulated  with  the  skull  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  jaws  have  no  horizontal  mo- 
tion, except  backwards  and  forwards,  as 
Rodent.  is  requisite  in  the  act  of  gnawing.  The 
enamelled  ridges  of  the  molars  are  transverse,  thus  in 
opposition  to  the  horizontal  forward  and  backward  mo- 
tion of  the  jaw,  and  exactly  adapted  to  the  process  of 
trituration.  The  form  of  Rodentia  is  generally  such 
that  the  hind  parts  considerably  exceed  those  of  the 
front ;  they  are  thus  adapted  to  leaping  instead  of  walk- 
ing. Their  fore-arms  have  little  or  no  power  of  rotation, 
and  the  bones  of  the  fore-arm  are  in  many  cases  united. 
Rodents  have  simple  or  but  little  divided  stomachs,  long 
intestines,  brain  without  convolutions,  and  eyes  directed 
laterally.  The  number  of  species  is  great,  six  hundred  or 
more  having  been  described.  Most  of  them  are  small, 
the  beaver,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  being  the  largest. 
Rodents  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  are  espe- 
cially numerous  in  America.  They  comprise  at  least 
five  families,  —  the  Sciuridae  or  Squirrel  Family,  Sacco- 
myidae  or  Gopher  Family,  Muridae  or  Rat  Family,  Hystri- 
cidae  or  Porcupine  Family,  and  Leporidae  or  Hare  Family. 
SCIURID/E,  OR  SQUIRREL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises the  Squirrels  and  their  allies,  which  have  the 
tibia  and  fibula  distinct,  and  the  molars  5  5  or  4^.  It 
includes  three  sub-families. 

I.  Sciurinae,  characterized  by  a  distinct  post-orbital 
process,  and  by  molars,  rooted,  5~. 

The  Genus  Sciurus  —  True  Squirrels  —  is  character- 
ized by  compressed  incisors,  long  ears,  divided  snout  and 
upper  lip,  long  tail,  with  the  hairs  arranged  mainly  on 
the  sides,  absence  of  cheek  pouches,  and  inner  lines  of 
the  upper  molars  parallel.  Squirrels  are  lightly  built, 


RODENTIA  :  .SCIURID^E.  59 

agile,  live  upon  trees,  and  feed  on  fruit  and  nuts.  There 
are  about  fifty  American  species,  of  which  twelve  or  more 
belong  to  the  United  States. 

The  Southern  Fox  Squirrel,  5.  vulpimis,  Gm.,  of  the 
Southern  States,  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas,  is  twelve 
inches  long  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  which  is  fifteen  inches  ; 
the  color  varies  from  gray  above  and  white  beneath, 
through  all  shades  of  rusty  to  pure  uniform  lustrous 
black ;  the  ears  and  nose  white.  -  This  is  the  largest 
North  American  Squirrel  that  has  been  described. 

The  Fox  or  Cat  Squirrel,  5.  cinereus,  Linn.,  of  New 
Jersey  to  Virginia,  and  west  to  the  Alleghanies,  is  about 
twelve  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  fourteen  inches  ; 
the  body  heavy,  color  varying  from  light  gray  above  and 
white  beneath,  through  all  shades  of  pale  rusty,  to  a  grizzly 
above  and  black  below  ;  the  ears  and  nose  never  white. 
.  The  Western  Fox  Squirrel,  5.  ludovicianus,  Custis,  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  is  about  twelve  inches  long  to  the 
tail,  which  is  about  the  same  length ;  color  grizzly  rusty- 
gray  above,  and  bright  ferruginous  beneath ;  the  nose 
and  ears  never  white. 

The  Gray  and  the  Black  Squirrel,  5.  carolinensis,  Gm., 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  nine  to  eleven 
inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  an  inch  longer 
than  the  head  and  body  ;  the  color  in  the  gray  variety, 
grizzled  light  yellowish-gray  above,  pure  white  beneath. 
The  Southern  gray  squirrel  and  the  Northern  gray  squir- 
rel are  generally  regarded  as  distinct  species ;  but  Baird 
considers  them  as  varieties  of  one  species,  for  which  he 
retains  the  name  given  above.  The  Southern  variety  is 
smaller  than  the  Northern,  and,  according  to  Audubon, 
has  different  habits.  The  gray  squirrel  occurs  of  every 
shade  from  gray  to  jet-black ;  and  the  black  and  dusky 
varieties  have  also  been  regarded  by  some  as  a  species 
distinct  from  the  gray.  Gray  squirrels  are  remarkable  for 


6o 


VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 


Fig.  54. 


their  occasional  extensive  migrations.  Assembling  in  im- 
mense numbers,  they  make  their  way  across  the  country, 
swimming  streams,  and  turning  aside  for  no  obstacle. 

The  Texas  Fox  Squirrel, 
5.  limitis,  Baird,  is  somewhat 
smaller  than  5.  carolinensis. 

The  California  Gray  Squir- 
rel, 5.  fossor,  Peale,  is  about 
the  size  of  5.  vulpinus,  but 
more  slender. 

The  Chestnut-Backed  Squir- 
rel, 5.  castanonotus,  Baird,  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  about  the 
size  of  6".  cinereus. 

The  Tuft-Eared  Squirrel,  S. 
Aberti,  Woodh.,  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Mountains,  is  about  eleven 
inches  long  to  the  tail.  This 
is  considered  the  handsomest 
squirrel  in  America. 
The  Red  Squirrel,  or  Chickaree,  5.  hudsonius,  Pallas, 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  and  north  to 
Hudson's  Bay,  is  seven  to  eight  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  about  six  inches ;  the  color  above  and  on  the 
sides  mixed  black  and  grayish-rusty,  with  a  broad  band 
of  bright  ferruginous  along  the  back  and  upper  surface 
of  the  tail ;  beneath,  dingy  white.  These  squirrels  are 
seen  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  all  kinds  of 
weather.  In  the  Northern  forests  the 
deepest  snows  of  winter  are  soon  cov- 
ered with  their  tracks,  and  penetrated 
by  holes  bored  to  find  the  cones  of 
spruce,  pine,  and  the  nuts  scattered  be- 
neath, or  which  they  had  hidden  the 
skuii  of  Red  Squirrel,  previous  autumn.  They  often  sit  for 


Gray  Squirrel,  Southern  var., 
.S.  carolinensis,  Gm. 


Fig.  55- 


RODENTIA  :   SCIURID^E.  6l 

hours  upon  a  stump  or  limb  of  a  tree  close  to  the  trunk, 
and,  holding  a  cone  or  a  nut  in  their  fore  paws,  gnaw 
it  briskly  'till  they  get  all  the  food  it  contains.  Dis- 
turbed -while  upon  the  ground,  the  Chickaree  ascends 
the  nearest  tree,  and,  making  for  the  outer  branches, 
leap;?  from  these  to  another  tree,  and,  passing  thus  from 
tree  to  tree,  is  soon  out  of  sight.  Sometimes,  however, 
when  suddenly  startled,  it  ascends  a  tree  a  short  dis- 
tance, and  commences  chattering  with  great  fury,  and 
leaping  about  as  if  in  defiance  of  its  intruder. 

The  Mountain  Gray  Squirrel,  5.  Fremontii,  Aud.  & 
Bach.,  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  resembles  the  Red. 

Richardson's  Squirrel,  5.  Richardsonii,  of  Western 
North  America,  resembles  the  Red  Squirrel,  but  is 
larger. 

The  Oregon  Red  Squirrel,  S.  Dotiglassii,  Bach.,  also 
resembles  5.  hudsonius,  but  is  larger. 

The  Genus  Pteromys  —  Flying  Squirrels  —  is  charac- 
terized by  a  densely  furred  membrane  extending  later- 
ally from  the  sides  between  the  fore  and  hind  feet,  by 
means  of  which  the  animal  is  enabled  to  glide  from  one 
tree  to  another,  supported  as  by  a  parachute.  There 
are  long,  bony  appendages  to  the  feet,  which  support  a 
part  of  this  lateral  membrane.  Four  North  American 
species  have  been  described. 

The  Common  Flying  Squirrel,  P.  volucella,  Desm.,  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  about  five 
inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  a  Fig  56 

little  less  in  length  than  the  head  and 
body  ;  the  fur  very  soft  and  silky,  the 
color  light  yellowish-brown  above, 
and  creamy  white  beneath. 

The  Northern  Flying  Squirrel,  P. 
hiidsonius,  Fischer,  of  the  Northern 

CV  •      i  .L!  r>  7         77  Flying  Squirrel, 

States,  is  larger  than  P.  volncella.  P.  voiuceilai  Desm. 


62 


VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 


Fig-  57- 


The  Rocky  Mountain  Flying  Squirrel,  P.  alpimis, 
Rich.,  has  the  lateral  membrane  with  the  border 
straight,  and  the  tail  longer  than-  the  body  exclusive 
of  the  head. 

The  Columbia  River  Flying  Squirrel,  P.  oregonensis, 
Bach.,  is  seven  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  over  six 
inches,  the  color  yellowish  brown  above,  and  dull  white 
beneath. 

The  Taguan,  P.  petaurista,  Linn.,  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, is  nearly  as  large  as  a  cat,  the  male  a  lively  mar- 
roon  above  and  red  beneath  ;  the  female  brown  above. 

The  Genus  Cheiromys  — 
Aye  -  Ayes  —  may  be  men- 
tioned here,  but  its  true  place 
is  doubtful.  Some  naturalists 
regard  this  curious  genus  as 
belonging  to  the  Quadrumana, 
to  which  it  seems  related  in 
the  structure  of  its  head,  and 
in  the  opposable  thumb  of  the 
hind  feet.  The  teeth  in  gen- 
eral position  are  essentially 
those  of  a  rodent,  but  the  lower 

incisorg  are  much  COmprCSSed 

Only  one  species 


It  inhabits  Mada- 
brown color,  and 


Aye-Aye,  C.  madagascarentis,  Cuv. 

and  extended  from  before  backwards. 
of  this  monkey-like  rodent  is  known. 
gascar,  is  of  the  size  of  a  hare,  of  a 
burrows  in  the  ground. 

The  Genus  Tamias  —  Striped  Squirrels  —  is  charac- 
terized by  ample  cheek  pouches,  tail  shorter  than  the 
body  and  not  bushy,  three  to  five  dark  dorsal  stripes, 
and  four  permanent  upper  molars.  This  genus  comprises 
only  a  few  species,  two  of  which  are  found  in  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  the  remaining  four  or  five  in  North  America. 

The  Chipping,  Striped,  or  Ground  Squirrel,  or  Chip- 


RODENTIA:  SCIURID.E.  63 

munk,  T.  striatus,  Linn.,  from  Montreal  to  Virginia  and 
westward  to  the  Missouri,  is  five  to  six  inches  long  to 
the  tail,  which  is  four  to  four  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  gen- 
eYal  color  above,  finely  grizzled  yellowish-gray  and  brown, 
the  back  and  sides  with  five  longitudinal  black  stripes. 
The  dark  stripes  Fi(T 

are  bordered  by 
chestnut-brown, 
and  the  rump  is 
pale  chestnut  A 
variety  is  whol- 
ly black.  The 

Stiiped  Squirrel,  T.  striatus,  Linn. 

writer    has   one 

specimen  of  this  color  from  New  Hampshire.  The  Striped 
Squirrel  makes  its  hole  near  the  roots  of  a  stump  or  tree, 
into  which  it  carries  its  stores  for  winter,  and  where  it 
stays,  without  once  coming  out,  so  long  as  the  cold 
weather  lasts.  In  autumn  these  squirrels  may  be  con- 
stantly seen  hurrying  towards  their  holes,  their  cheek- 
pouches  distended  to  the  utmost  capacity  with  nuts  and 
grain. 

The  Missouri  Striped  Squirrel,  T.  quadrimttatus,  Rich., 
of  Missouri  and  westward  and  southward,  is  four  to  five 
inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  as  long  as  the 
body ;  the  back  with  five  dark  stripes,  their  intervals 
forming  four  grayish-white  lines ;  the  sides  of  the  body 
deep  ferruginous,  the  under  parts  dingy  grayish-white. 
There  is  a  light  stripe  along  the  top  of  the  head,  with 
branches  above  and  below  the  eyes. 

The  Gila  Striped  Squirrel,  T.  dorsalis,  Baird,  of  New 
Mexico,  is  distinguished  by  its  single  distinct  dorsal  dark 
stripe. 

Townsend's  Striped  Squirrel,  T.  Townsendii,  Bach.,  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  is  the  largest  of  this  genus  yet  seen  in 
North  America. 


64  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

The  Genus  Spermophilus  —  including  Ground  Squir- 
rels, Spermophiles,  and  Gophers  —  is  characterized  by  a 
squirrel-like  body,  variable  ears,  well-developed  cheek- 
pouches,  and  absence  of  the  thumb  claw.  They  are  all 
burrowing  animals.  This  genus  is  represented  in  North 
America  by  at  least  fourteen  species. 

The  California  Ground  Squirrel,  5.  Beechyii,  Rich.,  is 
about  the  size  of  the  cat  squirrel,  S.  cinereus,  the  color 
above  mixed  black  and  light  yellowish-brown ;  beneath, 
pale  brownish-yellow.  It  is  notorious  for  its  depreda- 
tions upon  the  farm  products,  and  for  its  extensive  exca- 
vations. 

The  Columbia  Ground  Squirrel,  vS.  Douglassii,  Rich., 
of  Columbia  River,  is  very  similar'  to  the  preceding. 

The  Line-tailed  Squirrel,  6\  grammurus,  Bach.,  is  found 
from  the  sources  of  the  Arkansas  to  Sonora. 

The  Black  Ground  Squirrel,  5.  Couchii,  Baird,  is  found 
in  Northern  Mexico. 

Say's  Striped  Squirrel,  5.  lateralis,  Rich.,  is  found  from 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Cascade  Range. 

Harris's  Spermophile,  5.  Harrisii,  Aud.  &  Bach.,  is 
found  in  the  Mohave  Desert. 

The  Gray  Gopher,  5.  Franklini,  Rich.,  of  Northern 
Illinois  and  Wisconsin  and  to  the  Saskatchewan,  is  about 
nine  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  five  and  a  half 
inches  ;  the  color  above  light  yellowish-brown  varied 
with  black,  the  top  and  sides  of  head  and  neck  hoary 
gray,  and  under  parts  whitish. 

The  Round-tailed  Spermophile,  5.  tereticatidtis,  Baird, 
found  in  California,  is  five  to  six  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  less. 

The  Striped  Gopher,  or  Leopard  Spermophile,  5.  tri- 
decem-lineatus,  Aud.  &  Bach.,  of  Michigan  to  the  plains 
of  Missouri  and  southward,  is  about  the  size  of  the  Red 
Squirrel,  5.  hudsonius,  with  the  tail  something  more  than 


RODENTIA  I    SCIURID.E.  65 

half  the  length  of  the  body, 
the  color  dark  brown  above, 
with  light  stripes  and  lines  of 
light  spots  alternating  with 
each  other,  there  being  six  of 
the  former  and  five  of  the  lat- 
ter. This  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  animals  of  the  ge- 
nus. Its  burrows  are  quite 

Leopard  Spermopnile, 

deep  and  branching,  and  into        s\  tridecem-iineatus,  Aud.  &  Bach, 
these  it  at  once  disappears  with  a  chirp  whenever  it  is 
alarmed. 

The  Mexican  Ground  Squirrel,  vS.  mexicamis,  Wagner, 
of  Texas  and  Mexico,  resembles  the  Striped  Gopher. 

The  Sonora  Ground  Squirrel,  vS.  spilosoma,  Bennett,  is 
found  from  New  Mexico  to  the  Gulf  of  California. 

Parry's  Marmot,  5.  Parryi,  Rich.,  found  upon  the  shores 
and  islands  of  the  Arctic  Seas,  is  about  the  size  of  the 
Fox  Squirrel. 

The  Yellow  Gopher,  5.  Richardsonii,  F.  Cuv.,  of  Mich- 
igan to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  rather  larger  than  the 
Red  Squirrel. 

Townsend's  Spermophile,  5.  Toumsendiii  T&a.c\i.,  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  to  the  north,  is  about  the  size  of  the 
Red  Squirrel. 

The  Genus  Cynontys — Prairie  Dogs  —  is  characterised7 
by  rudimentary  cheek-pouches,  short  ears  and  tail,  five 
distinct  claws  to  all  the  feet,  and  very  large  molars.. 

The  Prairie  Dog,  C.  ludovicianus,  Baird,  of  the  Mis- 
souri region,,  and  westward  and  southward,  is  about  the 
size  of  the  Fox  Squirrel,  but  heavier,  appearing  much 
like  a  miniature  woodchuck.  •  Its  color  is  reddish-brown, 
above,  and  brownish-yellow  below.  These  animals  ut- 
ter a  sharp  chirp,  which  is  called  barking;  hence  their 
name.  They  live  in  burrows,  and  large  numbers  are 
often  found  in  the  same  locality,  forming  communities, 


66  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

which  the  hunters  call  "dog- 
towns."  Before  each  hole  there 
is  a  little  mound  of  earth  upon 
which  a  Prairie  Dog  is  almost  al- 
ways sitting,  on  the  lookout  for 
intruders,  and,  on  the  slightest 
alarm,  dives  into  its  hole,  but 
soon  cautiously  appears  again. 
It  is  well  known  that  their  holes 
are  the  home  of  the  burrow- 
ing owls  and  rattlesnakes,  with 
c.  ludovicianHs,  Baird.  whom  the  dogs  seem  to  live  in 

perfect  harmony ;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  they  are 
intruders  who  are  tolerated  from  necessity. 

The  Short-tailed  Prairie  Dog,  C.  Gunnisonii,  Baird,  is 
similar  to  C.  ludovicianus. 

The  Genus  Arctomys — Woodchucks  —  is  characterized 
by  a  large,  thick,  depressed  body,  rudimentary  cheek- 
pouches,  rudimentary  thumb  armed  with  a  small  flat 
nail,  and  naked  soles.  They  pass  the  winter  in  a  tor- 
pid state. 

The  Woodchuck  or  Ground  Hog,  A.  monax,  Gm.,  of 
the  Northern  States  and  southward,  is  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  about  half  as  long  as  the 
head  -and  body  ;  color  varying  from  black  all  over  to 
grizzled  above  and  bright  chestnut-red  beneath  ;  the  feet 
always  black  or  dark  brown,  and  the  tail  generally  black. 
They  often  commit  great  havoc  in  fields  of  clover,  upon 
which  they  like  to  feed. 

The  Yellow-footed  Marmot,  A.  flaviventer,  Bach.,  is 
found  in  Nebraska. 

The  Hoary  Marmot,  or  Whistler,  A.  pruinosus,  Gm., 
of  Northwestern  North  America,  is  about  the  size  of  the 
common  woodchuck. 

The  Alpine  Marmot,  A.  alpinus,  Linn.,  of  the  high 
mountains  of  Europe,  immediately  below  the  region  of 


RODENTIA:  SCIURID.E.  67 

perpetual  snow,  is  about  the  size  of  a  hare ;  the  color 
yellowish-gray.  It  is  often  tamed,  and  is  very  gentle  and 
playful. 

2.  Myoxinae  have  no  post-orbital  process,  molars  rooted, 
^,  and  no  coecum. 

The  Genus  Myoxus  —  Dormice  —  is  characterized  by 
laterally  compressed  incisors,  four  grinders  on  each  side 
of  both  jaws,  the  crowns  of  which  are  divided  by  enam- 
elled lines.  Dormice  are  pretty  little  squirrel-like  ani- 
mals, of  the  size  of  rats  and  mice,  with  soft  fur,  hairy  and 
tufted  tail,  and  lively  eye.  In  the  winter  they  become 
torpid.  So  far  as  known,  they  belong  to  Europe  and 
other  parts  of  the  Old  World. 

3.  Castorinae  have  no  post-orbital  process,  molars  root- 
less, ^,  or  in  Aplodontia  ^A 

The  Genus  Castor — Beavers  —  is  characterized  among 
all  the  Rodentia  by  the  broad,  horizontally  flattened,  and 
scaly  tail.  Beavers  have  five,  toes  to  each  foot,  the  hind 
feet  webbed,  and  the  second  hind  toe  has  a  double  claw. 
With  one  exception,  they  are  the  largest  of  living  Rodents, 
and  are  wholly  aquatic  in  their  habits  ;  their  feet  and  tail 
are  admirably  adapted  for  swimming,  and  their  chief  food 
is  bark  and  aquatic  plants.  Their  incisors  are  very  sharp 
and  powerful,  enabling  them  to  gnaw  down  trees  of  the 
hardest  wood.  Beavers  prefer  running  water,  in  order 
that  the  wood  which  they  cut  may  be  carried  to  the  spot 
where  it  is  to  be  used.  They  keep  the  water  at  a  given 
height  by  dams,  which  they  build  of  trees  and  branches 
mixed  with  stones  and  mud,  and  build  houses  for  winter 
with  the  same  materials.  Each  house  consists  of  two 
stories,  and  serves  for  two  or  three  families.  The  upper 
story  is  above  water  and  dry,  for  tMe  ^shelter  of  the  ani- 
mals themselves  ;  the  lower  is  bene^jh  the  water,  and 
contains  their  stores  of  bark  and  rooft.  The  only  open- 
ing to  the  hut  is  beneath  the  water.  They  have  burrows 


68 


VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 


American  Beaver,  C.  canadensis,  Kuhl. 


6l-  in  the  banks, 

whitherthey 
retire  when 
their  houses 
are  attacked. 
The  general 
color  of  the 
beaver  is  a 
uniform  red- 
dish-brown, 
and  the  fur 
is  of  the  best 
quality,  and 
was  former- 
ly very  valuable.  Only  two  species  are  known. 

The  American  Beaver,  C.  canadensis,  KuhL,  found  all 
over  North  America  ;  and  the  European  Beaver,  C.  fiber, 
Linn.,  of  the  Old  World.  .  These  are  much  alike. 

The  Genus  Castoroides  comprises  the  Fossil  Beaver,  C. 
ohioensis,  Foster,  of  New  York  and  westward,  known  only 
from  its  skull,  which  shows  that  this  beaver-like  Rodent 
was  six  times  the  bulk  of  our  living  species. 

The  Genus  Myopotamus  comprises  the  Couia,  M.  coi- 
pus,  Cuv.,  of  South  America,  which  resembles  the  beaver 
in  size  and  habits,  but  has  the  tail  round  and  long.  The 
fur  is  yellowish-gray,  and  is  known  among  the  hatters 
under  the  name  of  nutria. 

The  Genus  Aplodontia  comprises  the  Sewellel,  A.  lepo- 
rina,  Rich.,  of  Puget's  Sound,  which  is  about  the  size  and 
general  appearance  of  the  muskrat,  but  with  the  tail  very 
short  and  much  depressed. 

SACCOMYID^E,  OR  POUCHED  GOPHER  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  Rodents  which  have  large  and  distinct 
external  cheek-pouches,  pelage  composed  of  stiff  hairs 
with  no  under  fur,  molars  ^J,  and  the  upper  lip  not  cleft. 


RODENTIA:  SACCOMYIM:.  69 

i.  Geomyinae  comprise  those  which  have  the  body 
thick-set  and  clumsy,  skull  massive,  incisors  very  large 
and  thick,  limbs  very  short,  fore  claws  five  in  number 
and  enormously  developed.  They  are  burrowing  and 
nocturnal  in  their  habits.  The  Genera  Geomys  and  Tho- 
momys  comprise  the  Pouched  Gophers  of  North  America, 
of  which  there  are  more  than  a  dozen  species. 

The  Pouched  Gopher,  Pock- 
et Gopher,  or  Pouched  Rat, 
G.  bttrsarius,  Rich.,  of  the 
Northwestern  States,  is  eight 
to  ten  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  one  to  two  inch- 
es ;  the  color  reddish  brown  Pouched  Gopher, 
above,  paler  beneath,  with  a 

plumbeous  tinge  along  the  vertebral  region.  Its  cheek- 
pouches  are  very  large,  extending  as  far  back  as  the  shoul- 
ders, and  lined  with  short  hair ;  and,  as  in  other  mem- 
bers of  this  family,  are  used  mainly  or  wholly  to  convey 
food  into  the  burrows,  to  be  stored  up  or  eaten  at  leisure. 

The  Salamander,  G.  pinetis,  Raf,  of  Florida  to  Ala- 
bama, is  a  gopher  readily  distinguished  by  the  single 
deep  groove  of  the  upper  incisors,  dividing  the  surface 
into  two  unequal  portions. 

The  Pecos  Gopher,  G.  Clarkii,  Baird,  is  found  in  Texas. 

The  Chestnut-faced  Gopher,  G.  castanops,  Lee.,  is  found 
in  the  Upper  Arkansas  region. 

The  California  Gopher,  Thomomys  bulbivorus,  Baird,  is 
about  the  size  of  G.  bursarius,  cheek-pouches  completely 
furred  inside  and  white  to  their  very  margin,  which  is 
dark  brown.  The  color  above  is  reddish-chestnut-brown, 
finely  lined  by  dusky  tips  to  the  hairs  ;  beneath  paler ; 
the  chin  dusky,  with  the  extremity  white. 

The  Broad-headed  Gopher,  T.  laticeps,  Baird,  and  the 
Oregon  Gopher,  T.  Douglassii,  Giebel,  are  other  species 
respectively  from  California  and  Oregon. 


7O  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

2.  Saccomyinae  comprise  those  which  have  the  body 
graceful  and  slender  and  motions  agile,  the  skull  delicate, 
muzzle  long  and  tapering,  tail  very  long,  hind  feet  long, 
and  the  fore  claws  moderate,  but  exceeding  the  hind  ones. 

The  Genus  Dipodomys  —  Kangaroo  Rats  —  is  charac- 
terized by  a  broad,  depressed  head,  large,  rounded  ears, 
acute  snout,  ample  cheek-pouches  opening  externally,  very 
long  hind  legs,  and  a  long  tail  with  a  brush-like  tip. 

The  Kangaroo  Rat,  D.  Ordii,  Woodh.,  of  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  about  five  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is  about  as  long  as  the  body,  with  an 
erect  crest  of  long  hairs  towards  the  end.  The  color 
above  is  yellowish-brown  ;  below,  white. 

•  The  Jumping  Rat,  D.  Phillipii,  Gray,  and  the  D.  agilisy 
Gambel,  belong  to  Western  North  America. 

The  Genus  Perognathus — comprising  the  Tuft-tailed 
Mouse,  P.  pencillatus,  Woodh.,  and  five  or  six  closely 
allied  species,  all  of  Western  North  America  —  differs 
from  Dipodomys  in  having  the  ears  small,  tail  of  mod- 
erate length,  under  surface  of  the  soles  naked  or  sparsely 
hairy,  the  molars  rooted  and  the  transverse  ridges  tuber- 
culated.  The  Tuft-tailed  Mouse  is  three  to  four  inches 
long  to  the  tail,  which  is  four  to  five  inches,  with  a 
pencilled  crest  at  its  extremity.  The  color  above  is 
yellowish-brown  ;  the  under  parts,  hind  feet,  and  fore 
legs,  white. 

MURID^E,  OR  RAT  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
Rats,  Mice,  and  their  immediate  allies,  in  all  more  than 
three  hundred  species,  some  of  which  are  found  in  every 
country  on  the  globe.  None  are  of  large  size,  the  musk- 
rat  being  the  largest,  and  some  are  the  smallest  quadru- 
peds known,  except  the  shrews.  The  dental  formula  is, 
incisors  |  molars  usually  ~,  rooted  or  rootless.  Of  this 
large  family,  the  most  extensive  of  the  whole  order  of  Ro- 
dents, there  are  three,  at  least,  well-defined  sub-families. 


RODENTIA  I    MURID.E.  7 1 

1.  Dipodinae  are  characterized  by  unequal,  generally 
rooted  molars,  and  greatly  elongated  hind  legs. 

The  Genus  Dipus  —  Jerboas  —  is  characterized  by  a 
large  head,  long,  densely  hairy,  and  tufted  tail,  hind  legs 
which  are  exceedingly  long  in  comparison  with  the  for- 
ward ones,  and  by  the  metatarsus  of  the  three  middle  toes 
which  is  formed  of  a  single  bone,  and  by  the  three  upper 
molars  on  each  side.  The  Jerboas  move  about  on  their 
hind  feet,  making  great  leaps.  The  ancients  called  them 
Biped  Rats.  They  belong  to  Africa  and  Asia. 

The  Genus  Jaculus  has  the  hind  legs  and  tail  very- 
long,  the  latter  thinly  haired,  the  hind  feet  five-toed,  and 
the  upper  molars  four  on  each  side. 

The  Jumping  Mouse,  or  American  Jerboa,  J.  hudsonius, 
Baird,  of  Labrador  and  southward  and  westward  to  the 
Pacific,  is  about  three  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is 
four  to  six  inches  ;  the  col-  Fig  63 

or  above  light  yellowish- 
brown   lined    finely   with 
black,  beneath  white,  and 
the  sides  yellowish-rusty, 
sharply    defined     against 
the  colors  of  the  back  and 
belly.     When   startled  it        Jumping  Mouse>  *  ******  Baird- 
progresses  by  very  long  and  rapid  leaps,  and  there  is 
probably  no  other  mammal  of  its  size  that  .can  make  its 
way  over  the  ground  with  so  great  rapidity,  or  so  quickly 
escape  from  its  pursuers. 

The  Genus  Gerbillus,  —  Gerbils,  —  of  the  warm  parts 
of  the  Old  World,  belongs  near  this  group,  if  not  in  it. 

2.  Murinae  have  compressed  incisors,  molars  |^  or  ^£ 
and  rooted,  the  largest  anterior,  and  the  smallest  poste- 
rior.    They  comprise  Mures  and  Sigmodontes. 

a.  Mures,  or  the  Old- World  Rats,  are  characterized  by 
very  large  and  broad  molars,  and  those  in  the  upper  jaw 
have  three  tubercles  in  each  transverse  series. 


72  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

The  Genus  Mus  —  Rats  —  is  characterized  by  upper 
divided  lips,  acute  snout,  whiskers  in  five  series,  large 
and  nearly  naked  ears,  and  long  tail,  the  scaly  whorls  of 
which  are  very  distinct.  Over  fifty  species  of  this  genus 
are  known,  four  of  which  have  taken  up  their  abode  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Norway  or  Brown  Rat,  M.  decumanus,  Pallas,  is 
eight  to  ten  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  somewhat 
shorter  .than  the  head  and  body  ;  the  color  above  grayish- 
brown  mixed  with  rusty,  beneath  ashy  white.  This  rat 
is  known  all  over  the  world,  and  is  very  destructive  in  its 
habits.  It  belonged  originally  to  Central  Asia  ;  crossing 
the  Volga  in  large  troops  in  1737,  it  stocked  Russia,  and 
subsequently  overrun  all  Europe.  In  1775  it  found  its 
way  to  North  America.  It  is  often  called  Wharf  Rat. 

The  Black  Rat,  M.  ratttis,  Linn.,  is  readily  distinguished 
from  the  Brown  Rat ;  its  color  being  sooty-black  above, 
•passing  into  dark  plumbeous  or  paler  beneath.  Its  origi- 
nal locality  is  unknown.  It  has  been  the  house-rat  of 
Europe  from  'earliest  times,  and  was  introduced  into 
America  in  1544.  This  species  is  rare,  or  wholly  want- 
ing, in  localities  where  it  was  formerly  very  abundant ; 
for  it  always  disappears  before  its  more  formidable  rival, 
the  Brown  Rat.  Both  these  species  devour  everything 
edible  that  they  can  secure,  often  capturing  living  prey. 

The  Roof  Rat,  or  White-bellied  Rat,  M.  tectorum,  Savi, 
of  the  Southern  States,  is  smaller  than  the  Brown  Rat. 
It  is  originally  from  Egypt,  where  it  frequented  the 
thatched  roofs  of  the  houses  ;  hence  its  name. 

The  House  Mouse,  M.  musculus,  Linn.,  originally  from 
Europe  and  Asia,  but  now  found  all  over  the  world,  is 
grayish-brown,  finely  lined  with  darker,  passing  into  ashy 
plumbeous,  with  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  belly ;  the  feet 
are  ashy  brown. 

The  Genus  Cricetus,  comprising  the  Hamsters  of  North- 


RODENTIA  :    MURID.E.  73 

ern  Europe  and  Asia,  differs  from  rats  in  having  cheek- 
pouches  and  a  hairy  tail. 

b.  Sigmodontes,  or  New-World  Ratfc  and  Mice,  are 
characterized  by  narrower  molars  than  in  Mures,  and 
those  of  the  upper  jaw  have  two  tubercles  in  each  trans- 
verse series. 

The  Genus  Reithrodon  —  Harvest  Mice  —  is  charac- 
terized by  short,  hairy  ears  and  tail,  and  upper  incisors 
with  a  longitudinal  channel  along  the  anterior  face. 
There  are  four  species  in  the  United  States. 

The  Harvest  Mouse,  R.  humilis,  Baird,  of  South  Carolina 
and  westward,  is  less  than  two  inches  and  a  half  long  to 
the  tail,  which  is  a  little  shorter  than  the  head  and  body  ; 
the  color  above  grayish-brown,  grayish-white  beneath. 
The  region  about  the  mouth,  and  the  chin,  and  feet  are 
white. 

The  Long-tailed  Harvest  Mouse,  R.  longicauda,  Baird, 
of  California,  is  very  similar  to  R.  humilis. 

The  Genus  Hesperomys  —  White-footed  Mice — is  char- 
acterized by  a  murine  appearance,  variable  and  scantily- 
haired  tail,  molars  diminishing  from  first  to  last,  and 
elongated,  the  sides  indented  and  the  crowns  with  a  sin- 
gle longitudinal  furrow.  Most  of  the  species  have  white 
feet,  and  the  tail  whitish  with  a  darker  stripe  above. 
Fifteen  or  more  species  inhabit  the  United  States. 

The  White-footed,  or  Deer  Mouse,  H.  leticoptts,  Wagner, 
of  Labrador  to  Virginia 
and  westward  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi, is  three  to  four 
inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  nearly  as  long  as 
the  head  and  body ;  the  col- 

White-footed  Mouse,  H.  leucofius,  Wagner. 

or  yellowish  -  brown,  with 

generally  a  dorsal  wash  of  darker,  and  the  under  surface 
of  the  tail  pure  white. 
4 


74  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

The  Red  Mouse,  H.  Nuttalli,  Baird,  of  Pennsylvania 
to  Georgia  and  westward,  is  of  the  size  of  H.  lencopus ; 
the  general  color  bright  yellowish-cinnamon,  the  feet  and 
under  portion  of  the  tail  white. 

The  Cotton  Mouse,  H.  gossypinus,  Lee.,  is  somewhat 
larger  than  H.  leucopus,  rusty  yellowish-brown  above, 
ashy-white  beneath. 

The  Gray-bellied  Mouse,  H.  cognatus,  Lee.,  is  closely 
related  to  H.  leucopus,  but  smaller,  the  color  yellowish- 
brown,  the  under  parts  and  feet  dingy  white. 

The  Long-tailed  Mouse,  H.  Boylii,  Baird,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  larger  than  H.  leucopus,  body  stout, 
the  color  above  mixed  glossy-brown  and  pale  yellowish- 
brown  ;  the  lower  parts  white. 

The  Hamster  Mouse,  H.  myoides,  Baird,  of  Canada  and 
New  York,  is  of  the  size  of  H.  leucopus  or  larger,  with 
moderate  cheek-pouches,  the  color  above  cinnamon-brown 
lined  with  dusky,  the  under  parts  and  feet  pure  white. 

The  Prairie  Mouse,  H.  michiganensis,  Wagner,  of  Mich- 
igan and  westward,  is  about  three  inches  long  to  the  tail, 
which  is  half  an  inch  or  an  inch  shorter  than  the  head 
and  body  ;  the  color  above  blackish-brown,  the  under 
parts  snowy  white. 

The  Great-eared  Mouse,  H.  calif ornicus,  Baird,  is  one  of 
the  largest  of  the  genus,  sooty-brown  above,  white  below. 

The  Desert  Mouse,  H.  eremicus,  Baird,  of  California,  is 
readily  distinguished  by  its  naked  soles. 

The  Missouri  Mouse,  H.  leucogaster,  Baird,  of  the  Upper 
Missouri,  is  grayish-brown  above,  white  below. 

The  Rice-field  Mouse,  H.  palustris,  Wagner,  of  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia,  is  of  a  mixed  black  and  pale 
brownish-ash  color  above,  ashy  white  beneath. 

The  Genus  Neotoma  —  Wood  Rats  —  is  characterized 
by  a  rat-like  appearance,  large  and  nearly  naked  ears, 
long  and  more  or  less  densely  hairy  tail,  and  hairy  heels. 


RODENTIA:  MURID.E.  75 

The  Wood  Rat,  N.  floridana,  Say  &  Ord.,  of  Florida 
and  northward  and  westward,  is  of  the  size  of  the  Black 
Rat,  grayish-brown  mixed  with  rusty  above,  and  the 
under  parts  and  feet  white. 

The  Bush  Rat,  N.  mexicana,  Baird,  of  Texas  to  Cali- 
fornia ;  the  Black  Wood  Rat,  N.  micropus,  Baird,  of  Texas 
and  Mexico  ;  the  Brown-footed  Rat,  N.  fuscipes,  Cooper, 
of  California ;  the  Hairy-tailed  Rat,  N.  occidentalis,  Cooper, 
of  Oregon  ;  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  Rat,  N.  cinerea,  Baird, 
are  additional  species  of  this  genus.  N.  magister,  Baird, 
is  found  fossil  in  the  caves  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  Genus  Sigmodon — Cotton  Rats — is  characterized 
by  the  shape  of  the  enamel  on  the  two  last  molars  in  the 
lower  jaw,  which  is  in  the  form  of  the  Greek  letter  sigma. 

The  Cotton  Rat,  5.  hispidus,  Say  &  Ord.,  of  the  South- 
ern States,  is  about  half  as  large  as  the  Norway  Rat ;  the 
color  above  reddish-brown  lined  with  dark  brown. 

The  Texas  Cotton  Rat,  5.  Berlandieri,  Baird,  is  of  a 
lighter  color,  and  with  a  larger  tail. 

3.  Arvicolinae  are  characterized  by  incisors  as  broad 
as  deep,  molars  ^,  rootless,  ears  short  and  hidden,  muz- 
zle broad  and  rounded,  tail  very  short  and  mostly  clothed 
thickly  with  hair,  and  the  whiskers-  as  in  Murinae. 

The  Genus  Arvicola  —  Field  Mice  —  is  characterized 
by  small  size,  soles  naked  anteriorly,  tail  rather  short, 
cylindrical,  and  hairy.  The  posterior  upper  molar  is 
composed  of  five  or  six  prisms,  and  the  posterior  lower 
one  of  three.  This  genus  is  represented  in  the  United 
States  by  more  than  twenty  species,  about  half  of  which 
belong  to  the  western  portions. 

The  Red-backed  Mouse,  A.  Gapperi,  Vigors,  of  the 
Northern  States,  is  about  the  size  of  the  common  house 
mouse,  the  back  with  a  broad  stripe  of  bright  rufous 
brown,  sides  yellowish-gray  mixed  with  brown,  and  the 
under  parts  yellowish-white. 


76  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

The  Meadow  Mouse,  A.  riparia,  Ord.,  of  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States,  is  four  and  a  half  inches  long  to  the 
tail,  which  is  about  two  inches,  the  feet  large,  the  color 
dark  brown  above,  ashy-plumbeous  below. 

The  Gray  Mouse,  A.  Breweri,  Baird,  of  the  Eastern 
United  States,  is  about  four  and  a  half  inches  long  to 
the  tail,  feet  very  broad  and  stout,  fur  coarse,  and  the 
color  grayish  yellow-brown  above,  ashy-white  beneath. 

The  California  Arvicola,  A.  calif ornica,  Peale,  is  about 
the  size  of  A.  riparia,  the  fur  very  long  and  soft,  color  lus- 
trous light  yellowish-brown  above,  grayish-white  beneath. 

The  Prairie  Meadow  Mouse,  A.  austera,  Lee.,  of  the 
Mississippi  valley,  is  about  the  size  of  A.  riparia,  pale 
cinnamon-rufous,  variegated  with  black,  below  brighter. 

The  Upland  Mouse,  A.  pinetorum,  Lee.,  of  the  Atlantic 
States  and  westward,  is  three  and  a  half  inches  long  to  the 
tail,  dark  chestnut-brown  above,  hoary  plumbeous  below. 

The  Genus  Myodes  —  Lemmings  —  comprises  little 
mouse-like  animals,  the  largest  hardly  as  large  as  a  rat, 
with  a  broad  skull,  large  fore  feet,  long  claws  fitted  for 
digging,  and  very  •  short  tail.  Lemmings  inhabit  the 
northern  regions  of  both  continents,  and  are  celebrated 
for  their  occasional  extensive  migrations.  Norway,  Swe- 
den, and  Lapland  are  sometimes  overrun  with  these  ani- 
mals. Coming,  in  countless  numbers,  no  one  knows 
whence,  and  going  no  one  knows  whither,  they  sweep 
onward  in  a  straight  line,  swimming  rivers  and  lakes,  nor 
turn  aside  for  scarcely  any  obstacle ;  and  they  destroy 
everything  edible  in  their  course. 

The  Genus  Fiber  comprises  the  Muskrat,  F.  zibetliicus, 
Cuv.,  abundant  throughout  North  America,  and  twelve 
to  fourteen  inches  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  ten  to  eleven 
inches  ;  the  body  thick  and  clumsy,  tail  much  compressed, 
and  in  its  natural  position  sickle-shaped,  the  convex  por- 
tion being  above,  and  the  hind  feet  partly  webbed.  The 


RODENTIA  :    HYSTRICID,E.  77 

general  color  is  dark  brown  above,  rusty  brown  below. 
Muskrats  feed  upon  mussels  and  roots  of  grasses  and 
aquatic  plants,  and  build  winter  houses  of  mud,  sticks, 
and  grass,  and  having  an  entrance  under  the  water  which 
leads  to  a  dry  apartment  above.  In  summer  they  dig 
burrows  of  great  extent  along  the  banks,  in  which  they 
bring  forth  their  young.  They  are  good  swimmers,  mov- 
ing with  ease  and  considerable  rapidity.  At  early  even- 
ing, or  on  a  moonlight  night,  they  may  be  seen  swim- 
ming from  bank  to  bank,  or  log  to  log,  and  often  sporting 
together  in  the  most  playful  manner. 

4.  Spalacinae,  comprising  the  Blind  Rat-Moles  of  the 
Old  World,  may  perhaps  be  considered  a  fourth  sub- 
family of  Muridae. 

HYSTRICID.E,  OR  PORCUPINE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  a  large  number  of  Rodents,  which  at  first  view 
seem  very  different  from  one  another,  but  which  are 
united  by  important  characters.  The  molars  are  ^,  and 
the  terminal  portion  of  the  muzzle  is  clothed  with  small 
hairs.  They  are  mainly  American,  and  chiefly  confined 
to  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent. 

The  Genus  Erethizon  —  Porcupines  —  is  characterized 
by  a  flat  cranium,  short  muzzle,  medium-sized  tail,  and 
spines  which  are  short  and  half  hidden  in  the  hair. 

The  White-haired  or  Canada  Porcupine,  E.  dorsattis, 
F.  Cuv.,  of  Northern  United  States  and  Canada,  is  about 
two  feet  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  seven  inches.  The 
tail  and  upper  parts  are  covered  with  a  mass  of  white 
spines  with  dusky  and  bearded  tips.  The  general  color 
of  the  fur  is  dark  brown,  among  which  are  long  hairs 
with  white  tips.  This  animal  is  extremely  sluggish,  mak- 
ing but  little  effort  to  escape  from  man  or  beast ;  but 
its  formidable  armor  is  an  effectual  defence.  It  readily 
climbs  trees,  and  feeds  upon  bark,  leaves,  and  tender  ears 
of  Indian  corn.  It  lives  in  hollow  trees  and  in  holes 
among  the  rocks. 


VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 


The  Yellow-haired  Porcupine,  E.  epixanthus,  Brandt, 
of  the  Upper  Missouri  region  and  the  whole  Pacific  coast 
Fig.  6s.  of  North  America, 

is  nearly  the  size  of 
the  Beaver ;  general 
color  dark  brown, 
and  the  long  hairs 
of  the  body  tipped 
with  greenish  -  yel- 
low. 

The  Genus  Hys- 
trix  belongs  to  the 
Old  World. 

The  Crested  Por- 
cupine, H.  cristata, 
Linn.,  of  Southern 
Europe  and  Bar- 
bary,  and  South- 

Porcupine,  E.  dorsatus,  F.  Cuv.  WCStCm    Asia,  is    of 

a  grizzly  dusky  black,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and 
neck  with  a  crest  of  long,  lighter-colored  hairs.  Its  body 
is  armed  with  striated  spines,  the  longest  of  which  are  a 
foot  in  length,  and  in  the  middle  about  the  size  of  a  large 
goose-quill.  These  are  banded  with  black  and  white, 
and  terminated  by  very  sharp  points.  The  tail  is  short, 
and  furnished  with  hollow,  truncated  tubes  attached  to 
slender  pedicles,  which  make  a  noise  when  shaken.  When 
the  animal  is  at  rest,  the  quills  lie  flat  upon  the  body,  the 
points  directed  backwards  ;  when  attacked  or  excited, 
they  are  raised,  and  thus  constitute  formidable  weapons 
of  defence. 

The  popular  notion  that  Porcupines  have  the  power  to 
throw  their  quills  at  an  enemy  is  entirely  erroneous. 

The  Genus  Dasyprocta  —  Agoutis  —  has  four  toes  be- 
fore and  three  behind.  The  Agoutis  belong  to  South 


RODENTI A  :    LEPORID^:.  79 

America  and  adjacent  islands,  where  they  seem  to  take 
the  place  of  hares  and  rabbits,  which  in  general  appear- 
ance they  much  resemble.  Ccelogenys,  comprising  the 
Pacas,  is  a  closely  related  genus,  also  of  South  America. 

The  Genus  Dolichotis  comprises  the  Patagonian  Cavy, 
weighing  about  twenty  pounds,  and  resembling  a  hare. 

The  Genus  Chinchilla  —  Chinchillas — and  closely  al- 
lied genera  inhabit  the  mountain  regions  of  Chili  and 
Peru.  Chinchillas  are  scarcely  larger  than  rats,  with  a 
short  tail,  and  are  covered  with  ashen-colored  fur  of  the 
finest  and  softest  quality,  which  is  extensively  used. 

The  Genus  Cavia  —  Cobayes  or  Guinea  Pigs  —  com- 
prises animals  which  in  general  appearance  are  minia- 
tures of  the  next  genus,  except  in  their  separate  toes. 

The  Common  Guinea  Pig,  C.  cobaia,  Pallas,  is  indige- 
nous to  South  America,  but  is  now  found  also  in  a  do- 
mestic state  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  in  no  way 
related  to  the  pig.  The  head  -  and  nose  resemble  those 
of  a  hare,  and  the  eyes  are  large  and  round.  It  is  said 
that  rats  will  not  stay  in  houses  where  these  animals  are. 

The  Genus  Hydrochcerus  is  characterized  by  large  size, 
four  toes  before  and  three  behind,  and  all  armed  with 
large  nails  and  united  by  membranes. 

The  Capybara,  H.  capybara,  Cuv.,  of  South  America,  is 
the  largest  known  Rodent,  being  three  feet  long,  and  ex- 
ceedingly bulky.  Its  muzzle  is  thick,  limbs  short,  hair 
coarse,  and  tail  almost  wholly  wanting,  and  the  general 
color  yellowish-brown.  It  is  aquatic  in  its  habits,  is 
hunted  as  game,  and  its  flesh  is  quite  good  for  food. 

LEPORID^:,  OR  HARE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  is  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  Rodents,  not  only  by  many 
external  characters,  but  especially  by  the  upper  incisors, 
which  are  double,  each  principal  incisor  having  a  smaller 
one  behind  it.  The  dental  formula  is,  incisors  |,  molars 
5^5  or  5^5*  ^  t^ie  incisors  are  *ess  deeply  implanted  in 


8O  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

the  jaws  than  in  other  Rodents,  and  are  always  white  ; 
and  the  molars  are  always  rootless.  The  fore  feet  are 
five-toed,  and  the  hind  ones  four-toed,  and  all  well  devel- 
oped ;  and  at  the  lower  part  of  the  shank  the  tibia  and 
fibula  are  always  united.  The  members  of  this  family 
have  the  feet  clothed  with  hair  beneath,  and  the  inner 
surface  of  the  cheeks  lined  with  hairs.  The  tail  is  short 
and  bushy,  and  is  carried  erect  ;  or  it  exists  only  in  a 
rudimentary  condition.  They  feed  upon  bark,  tender 
twigs,  and  leaves.  Some  live  in  burrows,  but  most  have 
merely  &form,  or  nest  on  the  ground,  where  they  gener- 
ally sit  during  the  day.  Hares  have  a  curious  habit  of 
stamping  with  their  hind  feet  when  they  are  alarmed  or 
excited.  They  are  very  timid.  This  family  is  represented 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Genus  Lepus  is  characterized  by  molars  ~6-,  large 
ears,  short  and  bushy  tail,  hind  legs  powerful  and  much 
longer  'than  the  fore  legs.  About  twenty  Old-World 
species  have  been  described,  and  rather  less  than  that 
number  of  North  American.  Although  the  name  is  ap- 
plied to  several  of  our  species,  it  is  probable  that  there 
is  no  genuine  North  American  Rabbit,  of  which  the  Eu- 
ropean Rabbit,  L.  cuniculus,  may  be  taken  as  a  type  ;  but 
our  species  of  this  genus  are  Hares,  which  are  mainly 
solitary  in  their  habits,  and  do  not  construct  burrows. 

The  Polar  Hare,  L.  glacialis,  Leach,  of  Northern  and 
Arctic  America,  is  twenty  to  twenty-five  inches,  from  the 
nose  to  the  tail,  and  is  one  of  the  largest  of  the  hares. 

The  Northern  Hare  or  White  Rabbit,  L.  amcricanus> 
Erxl.,  of  Virginia  to  Labrador  and  westward,  is  nine- 
teen to  twenty  inches  long  ;  the  color  cinnamon-brown 
in  summer,  and  in  winter  white,  but  showing  yellowish- 
brown  between  the  tips  of  the  long  hairs.  This  species 
lives  in  the  thickest  woods,  rarely  or  never  goes  into 
holes  when  pursued,  but  depends  for  its  safety  upon,  its; 


RODENTIA  :    tEPORID^E.  8 1 

fleetness  and  its  windings  and  doublings  among  the 
thick  cover.  It  follows  the  same  paths  year  after  year, 
both  in  winter  and  summer. 

The  Red  Hare  or  Washington  Hare,  L.  Washingtonii, 
Baird,  of  Washington  Territory,  is  smaller  than  the  pre- 
ceding, and  in  summer  of  a  rich  cinnamon-red  color. 

The  Prairie  Hare,  L.  campestris,  Bach.,  of  the  Upper 
Missouri  region  and  northward  and  westward,  is  larger 
than  the  White  Rabbit,  the  tail  as  long  as  the  head,  and 
the  color  in  winter  white,  with  a  yellowish  tinge,  and  in 
summer  brownish-gray. 

The  Mule  Rabbit,  L.  callotis,  Wagler,  is  found  in  the 
southwestern  parts  of  North  America. 

The  California  Hare,  Z.  californicus,  Gray,  is  twenty  to 
twenty-five  inches  long,  the  general  color  above  is  mixed 
black  and  light  cinnamon-red ;  the  under  parts  cinnamon. 

The  Gray  Rabbit,  L.  sylvaticus,  Bach.,  common  through- 
out a  large  part  of  the  United  States,  is  fifteen  to  sixteen 
inches  in  length,  the  general  color  yellowish-brown  with 
a  tinge  of  reddish,  the  lower  parts  pure  white.  It  does 
not  turn  white  in  winter.  When  first  started,  th,e  Gray 
Rabbit  runs  with  great  swiftness,  but  soon  stops  to  listen. 
It  is  well  known  to  hunters  that  they  can  stop  it,  when 
first  started,  by  whistling.  If  pursued,  and  if  the  woods 
be  open,  it  enters  the  first  hole  it  can  find.  It  often  falls 
a  prey  to  the  weasel,  as  well  as  to  other  larger  enemies. 
Its  flesh  is  excellent  food. 

The  Sage  Hare,  L.  artemisia,  Bach.,  found  west  of  the 
Missouri,  is  smaller  than  the  Gray  Rabbit. 

Bachman's  Hare,  L  Bachmani,  Waterh.,  of  the  Lower 
Rio  Grande  region,  is  also  smaller  than  the  Gray  Rabbit. 

Audubon's  Hare,  L.  Audubonii,  Baird,  of  California,  is 
a  little  smaller  than  L.  sylvaticus,  the  ears  are  longer  than 
the  head,  and  the  tail  rather  long.  The  color  above  is 
mixed  yellowish-brown  and  black,  beneath  pure  white. 


82  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

Trowbridge's  Hare,  L.  Trowbridgii,  Baird,  of  California, 
is  smaller  than  Audubon's  Hare,  and  the  tail  very  short. 

The  Water  Rabbit,  L.  aquaticus,  Bach.,  of  the  Lower 
Mississippi  region,  is  larger  than  L.  sylvaticus,  is  common 
in  wet  grounds,  often  takes  to  the  water  when  pursued, 
and  swims  and  dives  with  facility. 

The  Marsh  Rabbit,  L.  palustris,  Bach.,  of  South  Caro- 
lina to  Florida,  is  about  the  size  of  L.  sylvaticus,  the  head 
and  incisors  disproportionately  large,  tail  very  short. 

All  the  domestic  varieties  of  Rabbits  are  supposed  to 
have  sprung  from  the  European  Rabbit,  L.  cuniculus, 
Linn.,  which  lives  in  troops,  and  constructs  burrows. 

The  Genus  Lagomys  —  Pikas  —  is  characterized  by  the 
molars,  which  are  ^,  the  short  and  rounded  ears,  short 
hind  legs,  and  the  absence  of  a  visible  tail.  Its  mem- 
bers are  confined  to  the  Northern  hemisphere,  and  most- 
ly to  elevated  regions.  They  are  all  small,  the  largest 
not  exceeding  in  size  the  Guinea  Pig.  In  Siberia  they 
are  called  Pikas.  Only  one  species  is  found  in  North 
America. 

The  Little  Chief  Hare,  L.  princeps,  Rich.,  of  the  South 
Pass  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  northward,  is  about 
eight  inches  in  length,  and  appears  in  color  like  a  young 
rabbit,  and  utters  a  low  bleat. 

SUB-SECTION   VIII. 

THE  ORDER  OF  EDENTATA,  OR  EDENTATES. 

THE  Order  of  Edentata  comprises  all  Mammals  which 
are  destitute  of  incisor  teeth,  and  some  members  of  this 
order  have  no  teeth.   Wagner  recognizes  three  families,— 
Bradypoda  or  Sloth  Family,  Effodientia  or  Armadillo  Fam- 
ily, and  Biclaviculata  or  Monotremata. 

BRADYPODA,  OR  SLOTH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises animals  which  have  canine  and  molar  teeth,  an-! 


EDENTATA:  EEPODIENTIA.  83 

terior  limbs  very  long,  much  exceeding  the  posterior, 
mamma?  pectoral,  tail  wanting  or  very  short,  and  the 
hair  long  and  coarse.  The  fingers  are  united  by  the 
skin,  and  only  marked  by  enormous,  compressed,  crooked 
nails,  which  when  at  rest  are  always  bent  towards  the 
palm  of  the  hand  or  the  sole  of  the  foot.  By  their  whole 
structure,  these  animals  are  fitted  to  pass  their  lifetime 
on  trees,  and  it  is  said  they  never  remove  from  a  tree 
until  they  have  stripped  it  of  its  leaves.  With  theij 
long  arms  and  long  claws,  they  cling  firmly  around  the 
branches,  and  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  they  almost 
always  keep  on  the  under  side  of  the  branch.  In  this  , 
position  they  move  and  repose  in  perfect  security.  On 
the  ground  they  move  awkwardly  and  with  difficulty* 
Observing  this,  and  not  knowing  that  the  sloths  are 
strictly  arboreal,  some  of  the  earlier  zoologists  regarded 
their  structure  as  unfortunate.  Two  species,  one  of  the 
size  of  the  domestic  cat  and  another  larger,  inhabit  the 
hot  portions  of  South  America.  ' 

The  Megatherium,  having  a  skeleton  eighteen  feet 
long  and  eight  feet  high,  only  found  fossil,  is  allied  to 
the  sloths.  The  bones  of  this  animal  are  of  colossal  di- 
mensions, the  femur  being  three  times  as  thick  as  that 
of  the  elephant.  The  Megalonyx  and  Mylodon  are  also 
huge  extinct  sloth-like  animals,  whose  remains,  like  those 
of  the  Megatherium,  are  found  in  the  superficial  deposits 
of  South  America,  and  also  to  some  extent  in  those  of  the 
United  States,  especially  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

EFFODIENTIA,  OR  ARMADILLO  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  Armadillos,  Ant-eaters,  and  Pangolins,  and  is 
characterized  by  a  long,  pointed  muzzle. 

Armadillos  or  Tatous  are  at  once  distinguished  from 
all  other  Mammals  by  their  bony  or  horny  armor.  This 
armor  is  not  a  consolidated  framework,  but  is  composed 
of  several  parts,  which  are  so  arranged  as  to  allow  freedom 


84  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

in  the  bending  of  the  body.  One  large  shield  covers  the 
head,  another  the  shoulders,  and  another  the  rump,  and 
between  the  two  last  there  are  several  parallel  movable 
bands  of  the  same  material.  The  tail  in  some  cases  is 
covered  with  successive  rings,  and  in  others,  as  the  legs, 
with  mere  horny  tubercles.  All  this  armor  is  attached  to 
the  skin  of  the  body ;  and  it  is  made  up  of  numerous  many- 
sided  plates  placed  together  as  in  inlaid  work.  The  Ar- 
madillos have  a  pointed  muzzle,  slightly  extensible  tongue, 
and  powerful  claws.  They  inhabit  the  warm  and  hot 
parts  of  America,  dig  burrows,  and  live  upon  vegetables, 
insects,  and  worms.  The  Genus  Dasypus,  as  limited  by 
Linnaeus,  included  all  the  species,  but  they  are  now  dis- 
tributed among  several  genera. 

The  Nine -banded 

Fig.  66. 

Armadillo,  D.  novcm- 
cinctus,  Linn.,  of  Tex- 
as to  Paraguay,  is 
eighteen  inches  long 
to  the  tail,  which  is 
about  eight  inches, 

Nine-banded  Armadillo,  D.  novem-cinctus,  Linn.          ^  ^  j^  ^  ^^ 

bands  between  the  shield  over  the  shoulders  and  that 
over  the  rump.  Other  species  have  respectively  three, 
six,  seven,  and  twelve  intermediate  bands. 

The  Giant  Armadillo,  D.  gigas,  Cuv.,  is  about  three 
feet  long  without  the  tail,  and  has  twelve  or  thirteen  in- 
termediate bands. 

The  Genus  Clamyphorus  includes  C.  truncatus,  Harlan, 
of  Chili,  which  is  six  inches  long,  and  has  the  back  only 
covered  with  a  suit  of  transverse  plates,  and  these  are 
attached  to  the  body  only  along  the  spine.  The  body 
is  truncated  behind. 

The  Glyptodon  is  a  fossil  Armadillo,  found  in  South 
America,  whose  shield  is  compared  to  a  huge  cask,  be- 


EDENTATA  :    MONOTREMATA.  8$ 

ing  five  feet  long,  and  the  total  length  of  the  animal  nine 
feet. 

The  Genus  Orycteropus  comprises  the  Earth-Pig  of 
South  Africa,  celebrated  for  its  unique  teeth. 

The  Genus  Myrmecophaga  —  Ant-eaters  —  is  charac- 
terized by  a  long  muzzle,  toothless  mouth,  filiform  tongue 
capable  of  great  extension,  and  used  to  penetrate  ant- 
hills and  nests  of  termites,  whence  the  insects  are  with- 
drawn, being  entangled  in  the  viscid  saliva  which  covers 
it.  The  body  is  covered  with  much  hair,  and  the  claws 
of  the  fore  feet  are  strong  and  trenchant,  and  suited  to 
tearing  open  ant-nests.  These  animals  inhabit  the  warm 
and  hot  parts  of  South  America. 

The  Giant  Ant-eater,  M.  jubata,  Buff.,  is  more  than 
four  feet  in  length,  grayish-brown  with  an  oblique  black 
band  edged  with  white  upon  each  shoulder.  Its  tongue 
can  be  elongated  more  than  two  feet.  Other  species  are 
much  smaller  than  this,  and  one  is  no  larger  than  a  rat. 

The  Genus  Hants  —  Pangolins  or  Scaly  Ant-eaters  — 
of  the  Eastern  hemisphere,  differs  from  the  last  genus  in 
having  the  body,  limbs,  and  tail  clothed  with  large  tren- 
chant scales  arranged  like  tiles,  which  they  elevate  when 
they  roll  themselves  into  a  ball,  as  they  do  when  they 
would  ward  off  the  attacks  of  an  enemy. 

The  Short-tailed  Pangolin,  M.  pendactyla,  Linn.,  of  the 
East  Indies,  is  three  or  four  feet  in  length. 

MONOTREMATA,  OR  ORNITHORHYNCHUS  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  animals  which  vary  widely  from  all 
other  Mammals,  having  their  organic  structure  in  many 
respects  much  like  that  of  Birds.  They  have  double  cla- 
vicles, and  well-developed  marsupial  bones, — Waterhouse 
places  them  at  the  end  of  the  Marsupialia;  the  males 
have  a  peculiar  spur  on  the  hind  feet,  besides  the  ordi- 
nary nails,  and  they  have  no  external  conch  to  their  ears, 
and  their  eyes  are  very  small.  They  belong  to  Australia. 


86  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS.     • 

The  Genus  Echidna  comprises  those  which  have  a 
long,  slender  muzzle  and  extensible  tongue,  like  the  Ant- 
eaters,  and  which  are  covered  with  spines. 

The  Genus  Ornithorhynchus,  or  Platypiis,  is  character- 
ized by  an  elongated,  enlarged,  and  flat  muzzle,  present- 
ing the  closest  external  resemblance  to  the  bill  of  a 
duck,  and  the  more  so  as  its  edges  are  similarly  furnished 
with  small  transverse  laminae.  These  animals  have  no 
teeth  except  at  the  bottom  of  the  mouth,  and  these  are 
without  roots,  with  flat  crowns,  and  composed  of  little 
vertical  tubes.  There  is  a  membrane  to  the  fore  feet 

which  not  only  unites  the 
toes,  but  extends  far  beyond 
the  nails  ;  in  the  hind  feet 
the  membrane  terminates 
at  the  root  of  the  nails,  and 
the  tail  is  flat.  The  whole 
body  is  covered  with  short, 
brown  fur.  These  animals 
live  in  ponds  and  quiet 
streams,  and  dig  burrows 

Ornithorhynchus,  or  Platypus.  .          ,         ,          -,         .  1*11 

in  the  banks,  in  which  they 

rear  their  young.     Only  one  or  two  species  are  known. 
They  are  less  than  two  feet  in  length. 

SUB-SECTION    IX. 

THE  ORDER  OF  PACHYDERMATA,  OR  PACHYDERMS. 

THE  Order  of  Pachydermata  comprises,  according  to 
Cuvier,  three  families,  —  Proboscidiana,  Pachydermata  Or- 
dinaria,  and  Solipedes  ;  or,  for  each  of  these  substituting 
family  names  drawn  respectively  from  a  prominent  genus, 
—  or  two  genera  in  the  second  case,  —  we  may  consider 
the  families  as  Elephantidae,  or  Elephant  Family,  Rhinoce- 
ridae  or  Rhinoceros  Family,  Suidae  or  Swine  Family,  and 
Equidae  or  Horse  Family.  They  are  all  herbivorous. 


PACHYDERMATA  :  ELEPHANTID.E.  8/ 

ELEPHANTID.E,  OR  ELEPHANT  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  animals  of  colossal  size,  —  the  largest  and  the 
most  powerful  of  all  the  land  animals,  —  with  the  nose 
extended  into  a  very  long  prehensile  snout,  upper  incisors 
developed  into  enormous  tusks,  head  short  and  expanded 
above  by  large  sinuses,  neck  and  body  short  and  thick, 
limbs  long,  without  angles  or  bends,  and  the  toes  five 
and  united  to  the  hoofs.  Their  gigantic  proportions, 
their  peculiar  organization,  and  their  intelligence  and 
sagacity,  combine  to  make  them  objects  of  great  inter- 
est to  the  common  observer,  as  well  as  to  the  naturalist. 
One  of  the  remarkable  features  of  the  elephant  is  the 
proboscis  or  trunk.  This  long  and  cylindrical  organ  is 
composed  of  several  thousand  muscles  variously  inter- 
laced, is  extremely  flexible,  and  endowed  with  the  most 
exquisite  sensibility,  and  is  terminated  by  an  appendage 
which  serves  as  a  sort  of  finger.  This  trunk,  agile  and 
powerful,  is  at  the  same  time  the  organ  of  smell,  of  touch, 
of  prehension,  and  of  defence.  With  it  its  possessor  seizes 
everything  he  wishes  to  convey  to  his  mouth,  drink  as 
well  as  food  ;  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  a  long  neck, 
which  would  be  inconsistent  with  the  enormous  head  and 
heavy  tusks,  the  latter  weighing  sixty  to  one  hundred 
pounds  each.  Elephants  at  the  present  day  are  confined 
to  the  warm  regions  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  They 
are  seven  to  ten  feet  high,  and  ten  to  fifteen  feet  in  length, 
and  covered  with  thick,  nearly  naked  skin.  One  distinc- 
tive characteristic  of  these  animals  is  found  in  the  grind- 
ers, the  crown  of  which  is  deeply  divided  into  transverse 
vertical  plates,  each  consisting  of  dentine  coated  by  en- 
amel, and  this  by  a  bone-like  substance  which  fills  the 
spaces  between  the  plates  and  cements  them  together. 
The  grinders  succeed  each  other  from  behind  forward, 
and  there  is  never  more  than  one,  or  two  partially,  on 
each  side  of  both  jaws  at  the  same  time ;  for  the  se- 
ries is  in  constant  process  of  shedding  and  replacement. 


'M  *  v 
88  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

'  f 

The  total  number  of  grinders  which  follow  one  another 
on  each  side  of  both  jaws  is  seven,  or  at  least  six. 

The  Genus  Elcphas  comprises  the  Elephants  proper. 

The  Asiatic  Elephant,  E.  indicus,  Cuv.,  of  India,  is 
specially  characterized  by  its  oblong  head,  concave  fore- 
head, and  the  undulating  sections  of  the  laminae  which 
are  seen  on  the  crown  of  the  grinders.  This  species  has 
smaller  ears  than  the  next,  and  four  nails  to  each  hind 
foot.  It  has  been  used  for  a  beast  of  burden  from  the 
earliest  times. 

The  African  Elephant,  E.  africamis,  Cuv.,  of  Southern 
Africa,  is  distinguished  by  its  round  head,  convex  fore- 
head, large  ears,  and  the  lozenge-shaped  figures  on  the 
crown  of  the  grinders.  Both  species  are  hunted  for  their 
tusks,  which  furnish  the  world  with  ivory. 

In  both  hemispheres  the  superficial  deposits  abound 
with  skeletons  and  parts  of  skeletons  of  elephants  which 
are  now  extinct.  An  elephant,  covered  with  long,  thick 
hair,  and  wholly  unlike  anything  now  living,  was  found 
encased  in  ice  on  the  coast  of  Siberia.  It  was  in  such 
a  state  of  preservation  that  dogs  fed  upon  the  flesh,  al- 
though it  is  probable  that  it  had  been  there  thousands  of 
years. 

The  Genus  Mastodon  comprises  extinct  Pachyderms, 
whose  remains  abound  in  the  superficial  accumulations 
of  America,  as  well  as  in  those  of  the  Old  World.  In 
general  appearance  the  Mastodon  was  much  like  the 
elephant,  but  differed  from  the  latter  in  the  grinders,  the 
crowns  of  which  are  studded  with  large  conical  points. 
A  skeleton  of  Mastodon  dug  up  at  Newburgh,  New  York, 
is  seventeen  feet  long  to  the  tail,  which  is  six  feet,  and 
the  tusks  are  nearly  eleven  feet  in  length,  the  whole 
weighing  two  thousand  pounds.  This  splendid  specimen 
is  in  the  museum  of  the  late  Dr.  Warren  of  Boston. 

RHINOCERID.E,  OR  RHINOCEROS  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 


PACHYDERM  ATA  :    RH«J(>C?ERID,E.  89 


ily  comprises  very  thick  and  nalSfed^ekinned  Pachyderms, 
which  are  distinguished  from  ElepS^ftldae  by  the  absence 
of  a  proboscis,  although  the  nose  is  much  developed,  by 
the  existence  of  small  canines  instead  of  enormous  tusks, 
and  by  incisors  in  both  jaws.  The  feet  are  three-  or  four- 
toed,  hoofs  of  unequal  size,  limbs  short,  body,  neck,  and 
head  more  or  less  elongated. 

The  Genus  Rhinoceros  comprises  the  largest  of  all  land 
animals  except  the  elephant.  They  are  huge,  bulky  ani- 
mals on  short,  stout  legs,  supported  by  broad  three-toed 
feet,  and  the  whole  body  is  covered  with  an  exceedingly 
tough  hide,  which  appears  in  several  species  in  large 
plaits  or  folds.  From  the  upper  surface  of  the  muzzle, 
where  the  bones  are  very  thick  and  strong  and  somewhat 
arched,  there  rises  a  horn  composed  of  a  solid  mass  of 
horny  fibres.  These  animals  inhabit  Africa,  Asia,  and 
the  Asiatic  Archipelago.  Seven  species  have  been  de- 
scribed. They  are  stupid  and  ferocious,  frequent  wet 
places,  and  feed  upon  herbs  and  tender  branches. 

The  Indian  Rhinoceros,  R.  indicus,  Cuv.,  is  about  five 
feet  high,  nine  feet  long,  and  the  largest  individuals  weigh 
six  thousand  pounds.  Its  horn  is  two  to  three  feet  in 
length. 

The  Genus  Hyrax  comprises  the  Damans  of  Africa  and 
Asia,  of  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  and  which  Cuvier  calls  rhi- 
noceroses in  miniature  without  the  horn. 

The  Genus  Hippopotamus  is  represented  by  only  one 
species,  H.  amphibius,  Linn.,  which  inhabits  the  rivers  of 
Africa.  The  body  is  massive,  legs  short,  four  hoofed  toes 
to  each  foot,  head  enormous  and  terminated  by  a  large 
inflated  muzzle,  eyes  and  ears  small,  and  tail  short.  It 
feeds  upon  aquatic  plants. 

The  Genus  Tapirus  is  characterized  by  the  nose,  which 
resembles  a  small,  fleshy  proboscis,  and  by  four  toes  to 
the  fore  and  three  to  the  hind  feet.  Two  species  are 
known. 


QO  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

Fig.  es.  The  American  Tapir,  T.  ameri- 

canus,  Linn.,  of  South  America,  is 
about  the  size  of  the  ass,  skin  brown 
and  nearly  naked,  and  the  neck 
fleshy,  forming  a  sort  of  crest  on 
the  nape.  The  Indian  Tapir,  T. 
Head  of  the  Tapir.  iudicus,  Fark.,  of  Sumatra  and  ad- 

jacent regions,  is  larger  than  the  American  species.  The 
remains  of  extinct  Tapirs  are  found  in  Europe,  one  of 
which  must  have  nearly  equalled  the  elephant  in  size. 
The  Genus  Paleotherium  and  allied  genera  comprise 
extinct,  more  or  less  tapir-like  Pachyderms,  the  remains 
of  which  abound  in  the  Paris  basin,  and  in  other  parts  of 
France,  as  well  as  in  America.  Both  Rhinoceridae  and 
the  next  family  are  well  represented  in  the  fossils  found 
in  Nebraska,  —  a  region  rich  in  the  remains  of  extinct 
Pachyderms  and  other  animals. 

SUIM:,  OR  SWINE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
much  smaller  Pachyderms  than  those  before  described, 
with  a  more  compressed  body,  pointed  head,  large  ears, 
blunt  snout,  slender  legs,  hoofs  in  pairs,  and  the  skin 
covered  with  bristles. 

The  Genus  Sus  —  Hogs  —  has  the  feet  with  two  large 
middle  toes  armed  with  strong  hoofs,  and  two  much 
shorter  lateral  ones  that  hardly  touch  the  ground.  The 
number  of  incisors  is  variable,  the  canines  project  from 
the  mouth  and  curve  upwards,  and  the  muzzle  terminates 
in  a  sort  of  truncated  button  fitted  for  turning  up  the 
earth. 

The  Wild  Boar,  S.  scropha,  Linn.,  is  the  parent  stock 
of  all  the  varieties  of  the  domestic  hog.  It  has  a  short 
and  thick  body,  straight  ears,  black  bristly  hair,  and 
angular  tusks  which  curve  outwards  and  upwards.  The 
young  are  striped  black  and  white.  When  wounded,  the 
wild  boar  is  ferocious  and  formidable.  These  animals 


PACHYDERMATA  :    EQUID^E.  QI 

defend  themselves  from  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts  by 
forming  a  circle,  and  showing  a  savage  front  to  the 
enemy.  They  are  indigenous  to  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa, 
where  in  the  wild  regions  they  are  still  common. 

The  Babiroussa,  5.  babiroussa,  Buff.,  of  the  Indian  Ar- 
chipelago, is  of  a  lighter  build,  and  is  characterized  by  its 
long  slender  tusks,  the  under  ones  turned  vertically  up- 
wards, and  the  upper  ones  inclining  spirally  backwards. 

The  Genus  Phacochcerus — Wart-bearing  Hogs — is  char- 
acterized by  a  fleshy  lobe  on  each  cheek,  and  enormous 
tusks  which  incline  upward.  These  hogs  inhabit  Africa. 

The  Genus  Dicotyles  —  Peccaries  —  differs  from  the 
preceding  genera  in  its  canines,  which  are  directed  like 
those  of  animals  in  general,  the  hind  feet  three-toed,  the 
tail  rudimentary,  and  there  is  a  peculiar  gland  upon  the 
loins.  Peccaries  inhabit  the  warmer  regions  of  America. 

The  Texas  or  Collared  Peccary,  or  Mexican  Hog,  D. 
torquatus,  Cuv.,  is  about  three  feet  long,  weighs  fifty  or 
sixty  pounds,  is  of  a  general  gray  color  with  a  whitish 
band  stretching  obliquely  from  the  angle  of  the  lower 
jaw  over  the  shoulders. 

The  White-lipped  Peccary,  D.  labiatus,  Cuv.,  is  larger 
than  the  preceding  one,  and  is  very  destructive  to  vege- 
tation. 

EQUID.E,  OR  HORSE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family,  called 
Solepedes  by  Cuvier,  comprises  animals  which  have  only 
one  apparent  toe  and  a  single  hoof  to  each  foot ;  although 
under  the  skin,  on  each  side  of  their  metatarsus  and  me- 
tacarpus, there  are  spurs  representing  two  lateral  toes. 
The  Genus  Equus  comprises  all  the  species. 

The  Horse,  E.  caballus,  Linn.,  is  indigenous  to  the  Old 
World,  but  has  accompanied  man,  and  become  estab- 
lished in  every  quarter  of  the  globe.  This  noble  animal 
is  the  most  beautiful,  graceful,  and  the  most  useful  to 
man  of  all  the  Pachyderms.  The  Horse  no  longer  exists 


92  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

in  a  wild  state,  except  in  those  countries  where  horses 
once  in  a  state  of  domestication  have  been  set  at  liberty, 
as  in  Tartary  and  in  America.  Here  they  live  in  troops, 
each  of  which  is  led  by  an  old  male. 

The  varieties  of  the  Horse  are  exceedingly  numerous  ; 
but  these  varieties  are  all  regarded  as  one  species.  The 
Arab  Horses  are  the  most  beautiful  and  the  fleetest ;  the 
largest  and  strongest  are  from  the  coasts  of  the  North 
Sea;  and  the  smallest  from  the  North  of  Sweden  and 
from  Corsica. 

In  South  Carolina  are  found  the  fossil  remains  of  a 
horse  which  was  probably  indigenous  to  this  country. 

The  Ass,  E.  asinus,  Linn.,  is  distinguished  by  its  long 
ears,  and  the  tuft  which  terminates  the  tail.  It  is  indige- 
nous to  the  great  deserts  of  Central  Asia,  where  it  still 
exists  in  the  wild  state  ;  but,  like  the  horse,  it  has  been 
domesticated,  and  is  used  for  a  beast  of  burden  and  for 
draught  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  noted  for  its 
patience  and  great  power  of  endurance.  The  hoarseness 
of  its  bray  depends  upon  two  small  cavities  situated  at 
the  bottom  of  the  larynx.  The  Mule  is  the  offspring  of 
this  species  and  the  horse. 

The  Zebra,  E.  zebra,  Linn.,  Southern  Africa,  has  the 
general  form  of  the  ass,  and  is  regularly  marked  through- 
out with  black  and  white  transverse  stripes. 

The  Dzigguetai,  E.  hemionus,  Pall,  is  intermediate,  in 
size  and  appearance,  between  the  horse  and  the  ass.  Its 
home  is  the  dry  regions  of  Central  Asia. 

The  Quagga,  E.  quaccha,  Gm.,  of  Africa,  resembles  both 
the  horse  and  zebra,  but  differs  from  both  in  specific  char- 
acteristics. The  neck  and  shoulders  are  brown  striped 
transversely  with  white,  the  rump  reddish  gray,  and  the 
tail  and  legs  whitish.  Its  voice  resembles  the  barking 
of  a  dog. 

The  Onagga,  E.  montanus,  Burchell,  of  Africa,  is  smaller 


RUMINANTIA.  93 

than  the  ass,  of  the  general  form  of  the  quagga.    Its  color 
is  bay,  with  black  stripes  ;  legs  and  tail  white. 

The  so-called  Herbivorous  Whales  which  Cuvier  grouped 
with  the  Cetaceans  are  now  placed  with  the  Pachyderms, 
with  which  they  undoubtedly  belong.  They  are  whale- 
like  in  general  appearance,  but  their  teeth  have  flat 
crowns,  and  they  have  corresponding  herbivorous  habits. 
They  frequently  leave  the  water,  and  crawl  upon  shore, 
and  feed  upon  the  vegetation.  Such  are  the  Manati  or 
Cow  Whales,  and  the  Dugong.  The  former  are  about 
fifteen  feet  long,  and  inhabit  the  warm  parts  of  the  At- 
lantic ;  and  the  Dugongs  are  found  in  the  Pacific,  and 
much  resemble  the  Manati. 

SUB-SECTION   X. 

THE  ORDER  OF  RUMINANTIA,  OR  RUMINANTS. 

THE  Order  of  Ruminantia  is  one  of  the  best  defined 
of  the  Mammalia.  It  comprises  all  those  animals  which 
masticate  their  food,  which  is  wholly  vegetable,  the  sec- 
ond time.  In  accordance  with  this  singular  faculty,  the 
stomach,  with  few  exceptions,  is  composed  of  four  differ- 
ent compartments,  each  having  a  special  function.  •  The 
food,  being  hastily  and  partially  chewed,  is  passed  into 
the  largest  stomach  or  paunch,  and  thence  into  the  sec- 
ond, called  the  honey-comb.  This  second  stomach,  small 
and  globular,  seizes  the  food,  moistens  and  compresses  it 
into  little  pellets,  which  afterwards  ascend  to  the  mouth 
to  be  rechewed.  The  animal  is  at  rest  during  this  process, 
which  lasts  until  all  the  food  first  taken  into  the  paunch 
has  been  thus  remasticated.  The  remasticated  food  de- 
scends directly  to  the  third  stomach,  called  the  leaflet ; 
thence  to  the  fourth,  or  caillette,  which  is  the  true  organ 
of  digestion,  analogous  to  the  simple  stomach  of  Mam- 
mals generally. 


94  VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 

The  feet  of  Ruminantia  are  terminated  by  two  toes 
and  two  hoofs,  appearing  like  a  single  hoof  which  has 
been  cleft.  Hence  they  are  often  called  cloven-footed 
animals.  Behind  the  hoofs  and  higher  up  are  generally 
to  be  found  two  rudimentary  toes.  The  two  bones  of  the 
metatarsus  and  metacarpus  are  generally  united  into  one, 
called  the  cannan.  With  few  exceptions,  the  head  of  the 
males,  and  in  many  cases  of  the  females  also,  is  armed 
with  horns.  Excepting  Camelidae,  the  Ruminantia  have 
no  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw,  but  in  nearly  all  cases  eight 
in  the  lower,  which  shut  against  a  callous  pad  above.  Be- 
tween the  incisors  and  the  molars  there  is  a  vacant  space, 
which  in  some  cases  contains  one  or  two  canines.  There 
are  six  molars  in  each  side  of  both  jaws,  which  have  their 
flat  crowns  marked  with  two  double  crescents,  the  convex- 
ity of  which  is  turned  inwards  in  the  upper,  and  outwards 
in  the  lower  ones.  Of  all  animals  the  Ruminants  seem  to 
be  the  most  useful  to  man,  furnishing  him  with  flesh  and 
milk  for  food,  and  hides  for  leather ;  and  many  of  them  are 
used  for  beasts  of  burden  and  for  draught.  The  Rumi- 
nantia may  be  divided  into  three  great  groups  :  those  with 
solid  and  usually  deciduous  horns,  as  the  Deer,  and  called 
the  Cervidse,  or  Deer  Family ;  those  with  permanent 
horns,  consisting  of  an  exterior  hollow  horn  encasing  a 
bony  process  of  the  skull,  as  the  Antelopes,  Goats,  Sheep, 
and  Oxen,  and  called  the  Cavicornia  Family ;  and  those 
which  have  no  horns,  as  the /Camels  and  Llamas,  and 
called  the  Camelidae,  or  Camel  Family. 

CERVID.E,  OR  DEER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family,  as  stated 
above,  comprises  all  Ruminants  which  have  the  horns 
solid,  and,  excepting  the  Giraffe,  deciduous.  These  prom- 
inences, or  horns,  are  at  first  covered  with  skin  similar  to 
that  upon  the  rest  of  the  head.  At  their  base  is  a  ring 
of  bony  tubercles,  which,  as  they  enlarge,  compress  and 
obliterate  the  bloodvessels  of  that  skin,  and  the  latter  be- 


RUMINANTIA  :    CERVID^. 


95 


comes  dry  and  peels 
off,  leaving  the  horns 
bare.  At  length  the 
horn  separates  from 
the  cranium  and  falls. 
Others,  however,  and 
larger  ones,  take  their 
places,  and  these  in 
turn  are  subject  to  the 
same  changes.  Thus 
the  horns  of  these 
animals  are  shed  and 
renewed  periodically. 
Such  horns  are  called 
antlers.  The  dental  virginia  Deer'  c-  *********  Boddaert- 

formula  is  incisors  |,  canines  ~  |  or  wanting,  and  molars 
—^     This  Family  is  represented  in  almost  every  region 
of  the  globe. 

The  Genus  Alee — Moose  —  is  characterized  by  very 
broadly  palmated  horns,  found  only  on  the  male,  and  the 
nose  wholly  covered  with  hair  except  a  small  spot  be- 
tween the  nostrils. 

The  Moose,  A.  americanus,  Jardine,  is  the  largest  mem- 
ber of  the  deer  family,  quite  equalling  the  horse  in  bulk, 
and  standing  very  high  ;  and  its  broad  antlers  weigh  from 
fifty  to  seventy  pounds.  The  muzzle  is  very  broad  and 
prolonged,  the  ears  long  and  hairy,  the  neck  short  and 
thick,  the  latter  and  the  shoulders  covered  by  a  sort  of 
mane,  and  the  throat  with  long  hair.  The  general  color 
is  grayish-brown,  and  the  hair  is  coarse  and  brittle.  The 
movements  of  the  moose  are  rather  heavy,  but  its  speed  is 
great.  It  does  not  leap,  but  strides  along  without  appar- 
ent effort  over  fallen  trees,  fences,  and  other  like  obstruc- 
tions. It  is  common  in  the  unsettled  parts  of  Maine  and 
New  York,  thence  westward  in  corresponding  latitudes, 


96  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

and  northward  to  the  frozen  regions.  It  frequents  wooded 
hillsides  in  winter,  and  the  borders  of  lakes  in  summer. 
Moose  are  hunted  for  their  flesh,  which  is  excellent. 
They  sometimes  turn  against  the  hunters  before  being 
wounded  or  even  shot  at.  Their  usual  mode  of  defence 
consists  in  striking  with  their  fore  feet. 

The  Elk  of  the  North  of  Europe  is  so  nearly  like  our 
moose,  that  the  two  have  been  regarded  by  most  authors 
as  one  species. 

The  Great  Irish  Elk,  Megaceros  hibemicus,  Owen,  ten 
feet  high  to  the  top  of  the  horns,  whose  tips  are  ten  feet 
apart,  is  an  extinct  species  found  in  marl  at  the  bottom 
of  the  peat  bogs  of  Ireland. 

The  Genus  Rangifer  —  Reindeer  —  has  the  horns 
broadly  palmated  at  the  tip,  and  present  in  both  sexes  ; 
the  nose  wholly  hairy,  and  the  hoofs  suboval  and  dilated. 

The  Reindeer,  R.  tarandus,  Linn.,  of  Northern  Eu- 
rope, is  about  four  feet  and  a  half  long  and  three  feet 
high,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  services  it  renders  to  the 
Laplanders,  who  possess  large  herds  of  them,  and  use 
them  as  beasts  of  burden  and  for  draught,  their  milk  and 
flesh  for  food,  and  their  skins  for  clothing  and  covering 
for  sledges.  The  reindeer  is  very  hardy,  and  draws  the 
sledge  of  its  owner  with  great  speed.  In  summer  it  feeds 
upon  the  tender  portions  of  shrubs,  but  in  winter  it  scrapes 
the  snow  from  the  ground,  and  feeds  upon  the  so-called 
reindeer-moss.  The  hair  is  brown  in  summer,  white  in 
winter. 

The  Woodland  Caribou  or  Reindeer,  R.  caribou,  Aud. 
&  Bach.,  of  Maine  and  New  Brunswick  and  westward  to 
Lake  Superior,  is  believed  by  some  to  be  identical  with 
the  European  species. 

The  Barren  Ground  Caribou,  R.  groenlandicus,  Baird, 
is  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  America  and  Green- 
land, beyond  the  limit  of  trees. 


RUMINANTIA  :    CERVIDJE., 
Fig.  70. 


American  Reindeer,  or  Woodland  Caribou,  J?.  caribou,  Aud.  &  Bach. 

The  Genus  Cervus  —  Common  Deer  —  has  the  horns 
more  or  less  rounded,  cylindrical  or  conical,  sometimes 
partly  flattened,  the  nose  tapering,  naked,  and  moist. 

The  American  Elk,  or  Wapiti,  C.  canadensis,  ErxL,  of 
the  northern  and  northwestern  portions  of  the  United 
States,  and  northward  to  the  fifty-seventh  parallel,  is 
about  the  size  of  the  horse,  the  horns  five  to  six  feet 
long  and  much  branched,  the  color  in  summer  light 
chestnut-red,  and  in  winter  grayish. 

The  Virginia  Deer,  C.  virginianus,  Bodd.,  (Fig.  69,)  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri  River,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  graceful  of  all  the  deer.  It  is  very- 
timid,  and,  when  alarmed,  bounds  through  the  forest  and 
over  the  plains  with  almost  incredible  velocity.  The 
weight  of  an  adult  is  about  two  hundred  pounds.  The 
color,  light  fawn  in  summer,  reddish-gray  in  winter,  the 
under  part  of  the  throat  and  tail  always  white.  The  Vir- 


98 


VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 
Fig.  71. 


American  Elk,  or  Wapiti,  C.  canadensis,  Erxl. 

ginia  Deer  is  hunted  for  its  flesh,  which  is  considered  one 
of  the  luxuries  of  the  table  during  the  winter  months. 

The  White-tailed  Deer,  C.  leucurust  Douglas,  is  found 
from  the  Upper  Missouri  and  Platte  to  the  Columbia 
River  and  Washington  Territory. 

The  Mule  Deer,  C.  macrotis,  Say,  is  found  from  the 
Upper  Missouri  to  Oregon. 

The  Columbia  Black-tailed  Deer,  C.  columbianus,  Rich., 
is  confined  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America. 

The  Stag  or  Red  Deer,  C.  elaphus,  Linn.,  inhabits  the 
forests  of  all  Europe,  and  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia. 
Its  weight  is  about  two  or  three  hundred  pounds.  The 
Stag -hunt  has  always  ranked  as  the  most  fashionable  of 
field  and  forest  sports. 


RUMINANTIA  :,  CERVID^E.  99 

The  Daim  or  Fallow  Deer,  C.  dama,  Linn.,  originally 
from  Barbary,  but  now  common  throughout  Europe,  is 
smaller  than  the  stag,  and  is  the  species  common  in 
parks  of  the  wealthy,  especially  in  England. 

The  Axis  Deer,  C.  axis,  Linn.,  indigenous  to  India,  but 
domesticated  in  Europe,  is  about  the  size  of  the  Fallow 
Deer,  and  is  always  of  a  rich  fawn  color  spotted  with 
white. 

The  European  Roebuck,  C.  capreolus,  Linn.,  is  a  very 
small  deer  weighing  only  about  sixty  pounds,  and  in- 
habiting the  high  mountains  of  the  temperate  parts  of 
Europe. 

The  Genus  Moschus — Musk  Deer  —  is  characterized 
by  the  absence  of  horns,  and  by  having  a  long  canine 
tooth  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  members  of 
this  genus  are  light  and  elegant  in  their  appearance. 

The  Musk  Deer,  M.  moschife-  Fig.  72. 

rus,  Linn.,  is  the  most  celebrated 
species,  being  the  one  which  fur- 
nishes the  well-known  musk  of 
commerce.  This  animal  is  about 
the  size  of  the  common  goat,  has 
scarcely  any  tail,  and  is  covered 
with  coarse  and  brittle  hairs.  It 
inhabits  Thibet  and  the  adjacent 
countries. 

The  Genus   Camelopardalis  — 

Giraffe — is  characterized  by  both  sexes  having  conical 
horns,  which  are  always  covered  with  a  hairy  skin,  and 
which  are  never  shed.  Only  one  species,  the  Giraffe,  C. 
girafa,  F.  Cuv.,  of  the  deserts  of  Africa,  is  known.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  animals  in  existence  in  re- 
spect to  the  great  length  of  the  neck  and  the  dispropor- 
tionate length  of  the  fore  legs.  Its  head  in  some  cases 
is  eighteen  feet  from  the  ground.  Its  hair  is  short  and 


IOO  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

gray,  sprinkled  with  fawn-colored  angular  spots,  and  it 
has  a  small  fawn-colored  and  gray  mane.  It  is  gentle 
in  disposition,  and  feeds  upon  leaves  of  trees. 

CAVICORNIA,  OR  HOLLOW-HORNED  RUMINANT  FAMILY. 
—  This  Family,  as  stated  above,  comprises  all  the  Rumi- 
nants which  have  the  horns  permanent,  hollow,  and  en- 
closing a  process  of  the  frontal  bone.  The  Cavicornia 
may  be  divided  into  three  sub-families,  which  are  here 
presented  together,  that  their  resemblances  and  differ- 
ences may  be  seen  at  a  glance :  — 

Antilopinae,  or  Antelopes,  characterized  by  horns 
rounded  or  conical,  without  sharp  angles,  variously 
curved,  annulated  or  wrinkled,  and  black ;  the  muzzle 
elongated,  attenuated,  generally  hairy,  and  the  end  of 
the  upper  lip  with  a  shallow  groove. 

Ovinae,  or  Sheep  and  Goats,  characterized  by  horns 
more  or  less  angular  and  compressed,  usually  twisted  and 
curved  backwards,  wrinkled,  and  generally  dull  yellowish- 
brown.  The  muzzle  is  broader  than  in  the  antelopes, 
generally  hairy,  and  with  a  shallow  groove. 

Bovinse,  or  Oxen,  characterized  by  horns  rounded, 
muzzle  broad,  usually  naked,  and  without  a  vertical  fur- 
row at  the  end. 

i.  Antilopinse,  or  Antelopes,  are  very  numerous  in  spe- 
cies, no  less  than  ninety  having  been  described,  varying 
in  size  from  the  light  and  graceful  gazelle  and  chamois 
to  those  as  large  as  the  largest  horse.  Two  of  these  be- 
long to  North  America,  two  to  Europe,  and  the  rest  to 
Southern  Asia  and  to  Africa,  but  mainly  to  Africa. 

The  Genus  Antilocapra  is  characterized  by  erect  horns, 
the  base  compressed,  with  a  flattened  process  in  front, 
the  end  conical  and  recurved.  The  nose  is  sheep-like, 
entirely  hairy  at  the  end  except  a  narrow  central  line  ; 
the  tail  is  very  short,  and  there  are  no  false  hoofs  behind 
the  large  ones. 


RUMINANTIA:  CAVICORNIA. 


101 


Pronghorn  Antelope,  A .  americana,  Ord. 


The  Prong-horn  Ante-  Fi«-  73- 

lope  or  Cabree,  A.  ameri- 
cana,  Ord,  of  the  plains 
west  of  the  Missouri  Riv- 
er, from  the  Lower  Rio 
Grande  to  the  Saskatcha- 
wan,  and  westward  to  the 
Cascade  and  Coast  Range 
of  the  Pacific  slope,  ex- 
ceeds in  size  the  domestic 
sheep,  and  has  longer  legs 
and  a  longer  and  more 
erect  neck.  The  hair  is 
very  coarse  and  thick ; 
the  color  above  yellowish- 
brown,  the  entire  under  parts  and  a  square  patch  on  the 
rump  white ;  the  horns,  hoofs,  and  naked  parts  of  the 
nose  black.  About  half-way  up  the  horns  on  their  an- 
terior face  there  is  a  branch  or  prong,  from  which  the 
animal  gets  its  popular  name. 

The  Genus  Aplocerus  is  characterized  by  horns  which 
are  small,  conical,  nearly 
erect,    slightly    inclined, 
recurved  at  the  tip,  and 
ringed  at  the  base. 

The  Mountain  Goat,  A. 
montanus,  Rich.,  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  an 
antelope.  Its  jet-black, 
polished,  slender,  and 
conical  horns  are  much 
like  those  of  the  chamois. 
It  is  covered  with  long 
and  pendent  hair,  and  the 

COlor  is  White.  Mountain  Goat,  A.  montanus,  Rich. 


Fig.  74- 


102 


VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 


Gazelle,  A.  dorcas,  Linn. 


The  Genus  Antilope  comprises  Antelopes  proper. 

Fig.  75.  The  Gazelle,  A.  dorcas,  Linn., 

of  the  North  of  Africa,  is  a  beau- 
tiful and  graceful  antelope  about 
the  size  of  the  roebuck,  with 
large  black  horns,  and  of  a  fawn 
color  above  and  white  beneath? 
with  a  brown  band  along  each 
flank.  The  soft  expression  of 
the  eye  of  the  gazelle  furnishes 
numerous  images  to  the  Arabian 
poets. 

The  Springbok,  A.  euchore,  Forster,  found  in  large 
herds  in  South  Africa,  is  an  antelope  larger  than  the 
gazelle,  but  of  the  same  form  and  color,  and  is  remark- 
able for  a  fold  of  the  skin  of  the  croup,  which  opens  and 
expands  at  every  bound  of  the  animal,  disclosing  the  bril- 
liant white  hair  with  which  the  fold  is  lined.  It. gets  its 
name  from  its  habit  of  jumping  upward  whenever  it  is 
excited.  In  seasons  of  drought  these  beautiful  animals 
are  seen  in  herds  of  ten  to  twenty  thousand,  wandering 
over  the  country  in  search  of  pasturage. 

The  Saiga,  A.  saiga,  Pall.,  of  Poland  and  Russia,  resem- 
bles A.  dorcas,  but  is  larger,  and  its  horns  are  transparent. 
The  Chamois,  A.  rupicapra,  Linn., 
of  the  middle  regions  of  the  high 
mountains   of  Western   Europe,  is 
about  the  size  of  a  goat,  of  a  deep 
brown  color,  and  its  horns  towards 
the  summit  are  bent  abruptly  back- 
ward like  a  hook.     The  chamois  is 
exceedingly  shy,  and  on  the  slight- 
est alarm  bounds  away  with  a  speed 
that  is  truly  wonderful,  over  rocks, 
Linn,     glaciers,  along  the  brinks  of  dizzy 


Fig.  76. 


RUMINANTIA:  CAVICORNIA.  103 

heights,  and  up  and  down  precipices  where  it  would  seem 
no  animal  could  get  a  foothold,  —  often  leaping  upon  a 
shetf  of  rock  of  scarcely  more  than  a  hand's  breadth,  or  just 
large  enough  to'  receive  its  four  feet  placed  close  together. 

The  Long-horned  Antelope  or  Oryx,  A.  oryx,  Pall.,  of 
Central  and  Southern  Africa,  is  as  large  as  the  stag,  and 
has  straight,  slender,  round  and  pointed  horns  two  or 
three  feet  long,  with  the  lower  third  obliquely  annulated. 
The  tail  is  long  and  blackish,  and  the  hairs  of  the  spine  are 
directed  towards  the  neck.  It  is  often  called  Gemsbok. 

The  Canna  or  Eland,  A.  oreas,  Pall.,  of  South  Africa, 
is  an  antelope  which  attains  the  weight  of  eight  hun- 
dred or  a  thousand  pounds,  and  has  horns  very  long  and 
straight,  and  with  a  spiral  ridge. 

The  Koodo,  A.  strepciseros,  Pall.,  is  another  very  large 
antelope  of  the  same  region  as  the  preceding  one. 

The  Gnu,  A.  gnu,  Gm.,  is  a  curious  animal  which  Cuvier 
describes  among  the  antelopes,  and  which  is  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  forms  of  life  to  be  found  among  the 
Ruminantia.  Its  head  and  horns  remind  us  of  the  Cape 
Buffalo ;  the  body,  mane,  and  tail  resemble  those  of  a 
horse,  and  its  feet  are  as  light  as  those  of  a  stag.  The 
muzzle  is  large,  flattened,  and  encircled  with  projecting 
hairs,  and  the  general  color  is  brownish. 

2.    Ovinae,  or  Sheep  and  Goats. 

The  Genus  Ovis  —  Sheep  —  is  characterized  by  horns 
which  are  directed  backwards,  and  then  incline  more  or 
less  spirally  forwards  ;  the  chanfrin  is  convex,  and  there 
is  no  beard  oh  the  chin,  as  in  the  goats. 

The  Mountain  Sheep  or  Big  Horn,  O.  montana,  Cuv., 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  much  larger  than  the  do- 
mestic sheep,  with  very  large  horns.  The  female  has 
smaller  horns  similar  to  those  of  the  goat.  A  large  in- 
dividual of  this  species  weighs  about  three  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds.  The  Argali  of  Siberia,  O.  ammon,  Linn.,  is 


IO4 


VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 


-  77-  regarded  by  Cu- 

vier  as  identi- 
cal with  the  "Big 
Horn.  TheMou- 
flon  of  Sardinia, 
O.  musimon,  Pall., 
differs  in  being 
smaller,  and  in 
the  smallness  or 
deficiency  of  the 
horns  of  the  fe- 
male. 

The  Mouflon 
of  Barbary,  O. 
tragelaphus,  Cuv.^ 
has  soft  and  red- 
dish hair,  with  a 
long  mane  under 

Mountain  Sheep,  or  Big-horn,  O.  montana,  Cuv.  the    TlPok  It    is 

from  the  Mouflon  and  Argali  that  our  numerous  do- 
mestic varieties  are  supposed  to  have  sprung.  Of  these 
the  Merino  from  Spain  is  one  of  the  most  noted,  on  ac- 
count of  the  length  and  the  fineness  of  its  wool.  Persia, 
and  countries  of  Asia  farther  east,  furnish  a  variety  whose 
tail  is  a  double  globe  of  fat.  Syria  and  Egypt  have  a 
variety  whose  tail  is  so  long,  and  so  loaded  with  fat,  that 
it  attains  a  weight  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  pounds. 

The  Genus  Capra  —  Goats  —  is  characterized  by  horns 
directed  upwards  and  backwards ;  and  the  chin  is  gen- 
erally furnished  with  a  long  beard,  and  the  chanfrin  is 
generally  concave.  This  genus  is  not  represented  in 
America,  the  so-called  Rocky  Mountain  Goat  being  con- 
sidered an  antelope,  as  before  stated.  Goats  are  exceed- 
ingly active,  and  the  wild  species  inhabit  high  and  rugged 
parts  of  the  mountains,  where  they  subsist  upon  coarse 


RUMINANTIA  I    CAVICORNIA.  1 05 

grass,  and  leaves,  and  shoots  of  low  shrubs  which  such 
localities  afford.  They  are  sure  of  foot,  and  bound  along 
the  verge  of  dizzy  heights  with  great  rapidity,  and  with 
an  air  of  conscious  security,  which  shows  how  well  they 
are  adapted  to  the  regions  which  they  inhabit. 

The  Wild  Goat,  C.  cegragus,  Gm.,  is  found  in  herds  on 
the  mountains  of  Persia,  where  it  is  called  Paseng,  and 
on  other  mountains  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  '  This 
is  regarded  as  the  parent  stock  of  all  the  numerous  do- 
mestic varieties. 

The  Angora  Goat  of  Asia  Minor  is  noted  for  furnishing 
the  softest  and  most  silky  hair,  which  is  largely  manufac- 
tured by  the  inhabitants  of  Angora,  no  less  than  thirteen 
million  pounds  of  fabrics  and  yarns  being  exported  by 
them  annually. 

The  Cashmere  Goat  of  Thibet  is  the  most  celebrated 
of  all  for  its  fine  wool.  This  goat  is  covered  with  long 
silky  hair,  under  which  is  a  delicate  gray  wool,  about 
three  ounces  of  which  are  obtained  from  a  single  indi- 
vidual ;  and  it  is  of  this  wool  that  the  renowned  Cash- 
mere shawls  are  made. 

The  Ibex,  C.  ibex,  Linn.,  of  the  high  mountains  of  the 
Old  World,  is  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  by  its 
large  horns,  square  in  front,  and  marked  with  transverse 
and  prominent  ridges. 

The  Caucasian  Ibex,  C.  caucasica,  Guldenst,  is  distin- 
guished by  its  large  triangular  horns,  but  not  square  in 
front. 

3.     Bovinae,  or  Oxen. 

The  Genus  Ovibos  is  characterized  by  horns  curving 
outward  and  downwards,  hairy  muffle  except  between 
the  nostrils,  tail  very  short,  hoofs  broad  and  inflexed  at 
the  tips,  and  the  hair  long  and  pendent. 

The  Musk  Ox,  O.  moschatus,  Blainville,  of  the  Barren 
Grounds  of  Arctic  America,  is  about  the  size  of  a  two- 
s' 


io6 


VERTEBRATES  I    MAMMALS. 


year-old  cow ;  the 
horns  united  on 
the  summit  of  the 
head,  flat,  broad, 
bent  down  against 
the  cheek,  with  the 
points  turned  up. 
The  color  is  brown- 
ish-black. 

The  Genus  Bos 
is  characterized  by 

Musk  Ox,  O.  moschatus,  Blainville.  homS   Curving   OUt- 

wards  and  upwards,  broad  naked  muzzle,  wide  space  be- 
tween the  nostrils,  large  ears,  rather  long  tail,  and  broad 
hoofs.  It  comprises  about  ten  species. 

The  Common  Ox,  B.  taurus,  Linn.,  so  serviceable  to 
man,  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  Its  varieties 
are  numerous.  The  Zebu  is  a  variety  inhabiting  India, 
which  has  a  large  hump  of  fat  upon  the  back  between 
the  shoulders.  The  male  is  known  as  the  Brahmin  Bull, 
and  is  held  sacred  by  the  Hindoos. 

The  American  Buffalo,  B.  americanus,  Gm.,  formerly 
inhabiting  nearly  all  North  America,  but  now  only  the 
Western  plains,  is  the  largest  quadruped  of  America,  be- 
ing of  the  size  of  a  large  domestic  ox,  and  characterized 
by  a  large  head,  which  is  carried  low,  broad  forehead, 
broad  full  chest,  large  hump  between  the  shoulders,  nar- 
row loins,  and  comparatively  slender  legs.  The  horns, 
set  far  apart,  are  thick  at  base,  and  taper  rapidly  to  a 
sharp  point.  The  Buffalo  is  covered  with  a  thick  coat 
of  hair ;  that  upon  the  head,  neck,  hump,  shoulders,  and 
fore  legs  to  the  knees,  is  very  long/  and  shaggy.  The 
horns,  hoofs,  and  hair  —  except  the  middle  of  the  back, 
which  is  brownish  —  are  black.  The  Buffalo  is  found 
in  herds  from  a  score  to  several  thousand  in  number. 


RUMINANTIA  1   CAVICORNIA.  IO/ 

Though  naturally  timid,  they  are  furious  and  formidable 
when  wounded  by  the  hunter. 

Fig.  79. 


American  Buffalo,  B.  americanus,  Gm. 

The  Aurochs,  or  Bison  of  the  ancients,  B.  urus,  Gm., 
formerly  an  inhabitant  of  all  Europe,  but  now  found  only 
in  the  forests  of  Lithuania  and  of  the  Caucasus,  is  closely 
related  to  the  American  Buffalo. 

The  Buffalo  of  Southern  Europe,  B.  bubalus,  Linn., 
introduced  from  India,  is  related  to  the  Ami,  B.  ami, 
Shaw,  of  India,  whose  enormous  horns  are  ten  feet  from 
tip  to  tip. 

The  Cape  Buffalo,  B.  caffer,  Sparm.,  of  South  Africa,  is 
characterized  by  its  large  horns,  which  are  so  wide  at  the 
base  that  they  nearly  cover  the  forehead.  It  is  a  very 
large  animal,  with  a  very  ferocious  disposition. 

The  Grunting  Cow,  or  Yak,  of  Tartary,  B.  grunniens, 
Pall.,  is  smaller  than  any  of  the  preceding,  with  a  tail  re- 
sembling that  of  a  horse,  and  a  long  mane  upon  the  back. 
It  makes  a  grunting  noise  similar  to  that  of  a  hog. 

Fossil  remains  of  extinct  Bovinae  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  North  America  ;  also  in  the  Old  World. 

CAMELIM:,  OR  CAMEL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 


IO8  VERTEBRATES  :    MAMMALS. 

prises  the  Camels  of  the  Old  World  and  the  Llamas  of 
the  New. 

The  Genus  Camelus  comprises  the  Camels,  which  have 
the  two  toes  united  below  nearly  to  the  point  by  a  com- 
mon sole,  and  the  back  furnished  with  humps  of  fat. 
They  are  natives  of  Central  and  Southwestern  Asia,  and 
from  earliest  times  have  been  celebrated  for  their  impor- 
tant services  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  arid  regions  of  the 
East.  Possessed  of  great  strength  and  power  of  endur- 
ance, capable  of  subsisting  on  the  coarsest  and  most 
scanty  vegetation,  able  to  travel  for  days  without  drink- 
ing, having  feet  suited  to  walking  over  sand,  and  withal 
gentle  and  obedient,  the  Camel  is  as  indispensable  to  the 
merchant  and  traveller  for  traversing  the  deserts  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  as  are  vessels  for  crossing  the  ocean.  The 
Camel  can  bear  from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds 
during  a  long  journey.  It  kneels  to  receive  and  to  be 
relieved  of  its  load.  With  an  intuitive  knowledge  of  its 
own  powers,  it  obstinately  refuses  to  rise  when  a  greater 
load  is  put  upon  it  than  it  can  comfortably  bear.  The 
power  of  resisting  thirst  is  due  to  the  large  number  of 
cells  on  the  walls  of  the  paunch,  in  which  is  stored  an 
extra  supply  of  water.  Camels  have  canine  teeth  in 
both  jaws,  two  pointed  teeth  in  the  incisor  bone,  six 
incisors  in  the  lower  jaw,  and  eighteen  to  twenty  molars  ; 
peculiarities  unknown  among  all  other  Ruminants. 

The  Two-humped  Camel,  C.  bactrianus,  Cuv.,  is  origi- 
nally from  Central  Asia.  This  species  is  ten  feet  long, 
and  eight  feet  high  between  the  humps. 

The  One-humped  Camel,  C.  dromedarius.  Linn.,  smaller 
than  the  last,  has  spread  from  Arabia  into  Persia,  Syria, 
and  Africa.  The  Dromedary  is  a  variety  of  this  species. 

The  Genus  Auchenia  —  Llamas  —  differs  from  the  pre- 
ceding in  having  the  two  toes  separate,  and  in  the  absence 
of  humps.  The  Llamas  are  confined  to  South  America, 


CETACEA. 


109 


and  chiefly  to  the  Andes,  and  are  the  American  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Camels. 

The  Llama,  or  Guanaco,  A.  llacma,  Linn.,  is  about 
the  size  of  the  Stag,  and  cov-  Fig.  &>. 

ered  with  coarse,  chestnut- 
colored  hair.  This  species 
was  early  domesticated  and 
extensively  used  as  a  beast 
of  burden,  in  which  capacity 
it  is  still  employed.  The  Al- 
paca is  a  variety  with  long, 
woolly  hair,  which  furnishes 
material  for  the  best  of  fab- 
rics. 

The  Paco  or  Vicuna,  A. 
vicunna,  Linn.,  is  of  the  size 
of  a  sheep,  and  covered  with  fawn-colored  wool,  which  is 
also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  valuable  fabrics. 

Remains  of  extinct  Camelidae  are  found  in  the  tertiary 
rocks  of  Nebraska. 


Llama. 


SUB -SECTION   XI. 

THE  ORDER  OF  CETACEA,  OR  CETACEANS. 

THE  Order  of  Cetacea  comprises  Mammalia  which  are 
formed  for  an  exclusive  residence  in  the  water.  They 
have  no  hind  feet,  two  small  bones  suspended  in  the  flesh 
being  the  only  vestiges  of  posterior  extremities ;  their  an- 
terior members  closely  resemble  fins  ;  arid,  excepting  the 
tail,  which  spreads  horizontally,  their  general  appear- 
ance is  decidedly  fish-like.  They  are,  however,  genuine. 
Mammals,  have  warm  blood,  respire  by  means  of  lungs, 
come  frequently  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  take  in 
fresh  supplies  of  air,  —  though  some  can  remain  be- 
neath the  water  for  half  an  hour  or  more, — and  pro- 


no  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

duce  and  nourish  their  young*  in  the  same  manner  as 
other  Mammals.  They  are  destitute  of  hair,  and  cov- 
ered with  a  smooth  skin,  under  which  is  a  thick  layer 
of  fat  called  blubber.  They  propel  themselves  with  ra- 
pidity by  the  downward  and  upward  movement  of  the 
tail.  In  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  Cetacea 
the  breathing-hole,  which  corresponds  to  the  nostrils  of 
other  animals,  is  situated  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and 
through  this  the  water  which  has  been  taken  into  the 
mouth  is  spouted  to  a  great  height,  and  this  spouting  or 
blowing  may  be  seen  at  great  distances,  and  often  serves 
to  reveal  these  animals  when  they  woul'd  otherwise  be 
unobserved.  The  species  are  numerous  ;  and  there  are 
at  least  three  families,  —  Balaenidae  or  Right-Whale  Fam- 
ily, Physeteridae  or  Sperm-Whale  Family,  and  Delphinidae 
or  Dolphin  Family.  The  first  two  have  the  head  exces- 
sively large. 

BAL^ENID^:,  OR  RIGHT-WHALE  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  Whales  which  have  no  real  teeth,  but  the 
two  sides  of  their  upper  jaw,  which  is  keel-shaped,  are 
furnished  with  rows  of  vertical  horny  plates,  called  whale- 
bone, formed  of  a  sort  of  fibrous  horn,  and  which  are 
fringed  on  their  inner  edges.  This  arrangement  is  adapt- 
ed to  the  nature  of  the  food  of  these  whales,  which  con- 
sists of  small  marine  zoophytes,  mollusks,  and  crustaceans. 
Fig.  81.  Swimming  through  schools  of 

these  little  animals,  the  Whale 
engulfs  myriads  of  them  at 
once  in  its  enormous  mouth  ; 
and  the  water  taken  with  them 
is  strained  off  through  the 
fringes,  and  all  the  animals, 
skuii  of  Right  whaie,  showing  the  even  the  smallest,  retained  and 

whalebone.  Swallowed. 

The  Genus  Balana  comprises  the  Right  Whales  proper. 


CETACEA 


in 


The    Great    Green- 
land, or  Right  Whale, 
B.  mysticetus,  Linn.,  at- 
tains the  length  of  sev- 
enty feet,  and  is  some- 
times   furnished    with 
blubber  two   or   three 
feet  in  thickness.  This 
species     supplies     the 
black,   flexible    whale- 
bone, in  slabs  of  eight 
to  ten  feet  in  length, 
an  individual  yielding 
six    to    nine    hundred 
strips  or  slabs  on  each 
side  of  the  palate.     It 
also  furnishes  more  oil 
than  any  other  whale, 
—  a  single    individual 
yielding,  in  some  cases, 
one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty  tuns.      The    Right 
Whale  is   confined  to 
the  frigid  regions,  and 
is  common  to  the  North 
Atlantic  and  North  Pa- 
cific, but  is  never  found 
in  the  tropics.     It  has 
the  seven  cervical  ver- 
tebrae consolidated  in- 
to one. 

B.  australis  is  a  spe- 
cies confined  to  the 
Antartic  regions,  and 
is  smaller  than  the 
Greenland  Whale. 


Fig.  82. 


Right  Whale,  B.  mysticetus,  Linn. 


ii2  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

The  Genus  Balcznoptera  comprises  Whales  with  a  dor- 
sal fin  and  short  baleen,  and  known  under  the  names  of 
Fin-backs,  Razor-backs,  and  Rorquals.  They  equal  and 
in  many  cases  much  exceed  the  B.  mysticetus  in  length, — 
some  have  been  seen  one  hundred  feet  long,  —  but  yield 
far  less  oil.  They  are  exceedingly  powerful  and  rapid  in 
their  movements,  and  are  captured  with  the  greatest  dif- 
ficulty and  danger.  One  or  two  species  are  common  on 
the  North  Atlantic  coast  of  America. 

PHYSETERID.E,  OR  SPERM-WHALE  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  Whales  with  excessively  enlarged  heads, 
and  whose  upper  jaw  has  neither  teeth  nor  whalebone, 
and  whose  lower  jaw  is  narrow,  elongated,  and  corre- 
sponds to  a  furrow  in  the  upper  one,  and  is  armed  on 
each  side  with  a  range  of  cylindrical  or  conical  teeth, 
which,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  fit  corresponding  cavi- 
ties in  the  upper  jaw.  The  upper  portion  of  the  head 
Fig.  83.  consists  mainly  of 

large  cavities,  sepa- 
rated and  covered  by 
cartilages,  and  filled 
with  an  oil  which  be- 
comes fixed  as  it  cools, 
and  is  known  under 
the  name  of  sperma- 

Head  of  Sperm  Whale.  cet  j_      Jhe  J^y  yields 

sperm  oil.  The  substance  known  under  the  name  of  am- 
bergris is  a  concretion  formed  in  the  intestines  of  Sperm 
Whales.  These  animals  inhabit  deep,  tropical,  and  tem- 
perate seas,  and  never  enter  the  Polar  regions. 

The  Genus  Physeter'  comprises  the  Sperm  Whales 
proper. 

The  Great  Sperm  Whale  or  Cachelot,  P.  macrocephalus, 
Shaw,  is  the  largest  and  most  important  species,  equal- 
ling the  Right  Whale  in  size,  averaging  sixty  feet  in 


CETACEA:  DELPHINHXE.  113 

length.  The  largest  specimen  recorded  was  seventy-six 
feet  in  length,  and  thirty-eight  feet  in  girth.  The  head 
constitutes  one  third  of  the  whole  animal.  In  this  spe- 
cies the  atlas  is  separate,  but  all  the  rest  of  the  cervical 
vertebrae  are  consolidated  into  one.  The  Sperm  Whale 
is  usually  found  in  companies  of  twenty  to  one  hundred 
or  more,  and  these  companies  are  composed  of  females 
and  their  young  and  an  old  male.  The  Sperm-Whale 
fishery  has  employed  at  one  time  six  hundred  American 
vessels  and  fifteen  thousand  American  seamen. 

DELPHINID^E,  OR  DOLPHIN  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises Cetaceans  which  are  included  in  the  Linnaean  ge- 
nus Dolphinust  and  whose  head  bears  the  usual  propor- 
tion to  the  body,  and  whose  jaws  are  both  armed  with 
simple  and  generally  conical  teeth,  which  they  shed  more 
or  less  with  age.  They  live  in  communities,  and  are  the 
most  rapacious  of  the  whole  order. 

The  Genus  Delphinus  —  Dolphins  proper  —  is  charac- 
terized by  a  convex  forehead  and  a  beak-like  muzzle. 
The  species  are  quite  numerous,  varying  from  six  to 
fifteen  feet  in  length,  and  are  celebrated  for  their  great 
velocity  of  movement. 

The  Common  Dolphin,  D.  delphis,  Linn.,  of  all  seasr  is 
six  to  ten  feet  long,  with  from  forty  to  forty-seven  slender, 
arcuate,  and  pointed  teeth  on  each  side,  both  above  and 

FiS-  84. 


Common  Dolphin,  D.  delphis,  Linn. 

below  ;  the  color  black  above  and  white  beneath.  Tin's 
is  the .  Dolphin  of  the  ancients,  so  celebrated  for  its  al- 
leged docility  and  fondness  for  music. 


ii4  VERTEBRATES:  MAMMALS. 

The  Genus  Phoccena  —  Porpoises  and  Grampuses  —  is 
distinguished  from  the  Dolphins  proper  by  a  short  and 
convex  muzzle.  The  members  of  this  genus  are  from 
four  to  twenty  feet  in  length,  and,  like  dolphins,  are  often 
seen  in  large  herds. 

The  Common  Porpoise,  D.  phoccena,  Linn.,  is  the  small- 
est of  the  Cetaceans,  being  only  four  or  five  feet  long ; 
the  color  blackish  above,  whitish  below. 

The  Grampus  or  Killer,  D.  orca,  Cuv.,  is  twenty  to 
twenty-five  feet  long,  and  is  said  to  attack  the  whale. 

The  Blackfish  or  Round-headed  Grampus,  D.  globiceps, 
Cuv.,  is  twenty  feet  long  ;  shining  bluish-black  above, 
lighter  below. 

The  White  Grampus  or  White  Whale,  D.  leucus,  Gm., 
Beluga  borealis,  Lesson,  of  the  Northern  regions,  is  ten 
to  twenty  or  more  feet  in  length,  with  the  dorsal  fin  small, 

Fig.  85. 


White  Whale,  D.  leucus,  Gm. 

and  for  a  Cetacean  with  an  unusually  distinct  neck,  the 
vertebras  of  which  are  separate,  and  move  freely  upon  one 
another.  It  often  ascends  rivers  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  is  common  in  the  St.  Lawrence.  A  specimen 
of  this  animal,  about  ten  feet  long,  and  weighing  about 
seven  hundred  pounds,  was  kept  in  a  tank  in  the  Aqua- 
rial  Gardens,  Boston,  for  about  two  years.  He  was  quite 
docile,  learned  to  recognize  his  keeper,  and  would  come 
and  take  food  from  his  hand.  He  was  trained  to  the  har- 
ness, and  drew  a  young  lady  in  a  car  prepared  for  the 
purpose. 

The  Genus  Monodon  —  Narwhal  —  has  no  true  teeth, 


BIRDS.  115 

but  a  long,  straight,  pointed  tusk  implanted  in  the  inter- 
maxillary bone,  and  directed  in  the  line  of  the  body. 
The  developed  tusk  is  on  the  left  side  ;  an  undeveloped 
one  exists  on  the  right  side. 

The  Narwhal,  M.  monoceros,  Linn.,  resembles  a  por- 
poise except  in  its  spirally  furrowed  tusk,  sometimes  ten 
feet  long.  These  animals  inhabit  the  Arctic  seas,  and 
are  pursued  and  skilfully  captured  by  the  Esquimaux. 

Remains  of  extinct  Cetacea  occur  in  various  parts  'of 
North  America,  as  well  as  in  the  Old  World.  The  Zeu- 
glodon  was  a  Cetacean  seventy  feet  long,  whose  remains 
abound  in  the  Southern  States,  especially  in  Alabama. 


SECTION    II. 

THE   CLASS   OF   BIRDS. 

THE  Class  of  Birds  comprises  all  oviparous  vertebrates 
which  are  clothed  with  feathers,  furnished  with  a  bill, 
and  organized  for  flight.  They  have  warm  blood,  and 
a  complete  double  circulation.  They  are  all  bipeds  ;  the 
body  is  inclined  before  their  feet,  the  thighs  are  directed 
forward,  and  the  toes  elongated,  forming  a  broad  sup- 
porting base.  The  head  and  neck  are  more  or  less  pro- 
longed, the  latter  very  flexible,  and  generally  containing 
twelve  or  more  vertebrae.  The  length  of  the  neck  and 
its  great  flexibility  enable  these  animals  to  touch  every 
part  of  the  body  with  the  bill.  The  trunk,  serving  as  a 
point  of  support  for  the  extended  locomotive  members, 
has  little  flexibility,  the  vertebrae  of  this  portion  being 
more  or  less  firmly  joined  together.  The  pelvis  is  much 
lengthened  to  furnish  points  of  attachment  for  the  muscles 
of  the  thighs  ;  and  the  sternum  is  of  great  extent,  to  bear 
the  extensive  muscles  for  moving  the  wings  in  flight. 
The  sternal  as  well  as  the  vertebral  parts  of  the  ribs  are 


ii6  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

Fig.  86. 


II    MLj^r  - 

'  ^~^  •^WG^^l^riTiiyf*'  4>s 

mt  ....--^^>r^^^t»i3l^5t 

Skeleton  of  a  Bird. 

hd,  head ;  cv,  cervical  vertebrae  ;  p,  pelvis  ;  sc,  scapula  :  c /,  clavicle  ;  cd,  corocoid  bone, 
formerly  regarded  as  the  clavicle  ;  st,  sternum ;  /i,  humerus ;  u,  ulna  ;  r,  radius  ;  c,  car- 
pus ;  me,  metacarpus  ;  ph  and  tk,  phalanges,  th  being  the  thumb ;  fe,  femur ;  ft,  fibula 
and  tibia,  more  or  less  united;  t,  tibia,  where  the  fibula  is  no  longer  seen,  or  only  faintly 
indicated ;  is,  tarsus ;  mt,  metatarsus  more  or  less  consolidated  with  the  tarsus ;  PS,  pha- 
langes, or  toes. 

ossified  in  order  to  give  greater  strength  to  the  trunk ; 
and  a  small  bone  is  attached  obliquely  across  each  rib, 
as  a  sort  of  cross-beam,  which  also  contributes  to  the 
same  result.  The  shoulders,  which  would  otherwise  be 
brought  together  by  the  effort  of  flying,  are  kept  apart 
by  two  bony  braces.  Regarding  the  wrist  as  part  of  the 
hand,  the  wings  are  each  made  up  of  three  sections,  — 
the  arm,  forearm,  and  hand,  —  thus  corresponding  to  the 
anterior  extremities  of  man  and  other  Mammals.  The 
wings  are  furnished  throughout  their  whole  length  with  a 
range  of  quills,  thus  presenting  a  great  surface  to  the  air. 
The  quills  attached  to  the  hand  are  called  primaries,  and 
are  the  largest  and  firmest;  those  attached  to  the  fore- 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS. 


117 


Fig.  87. 


Occiput  .  .  . 
Parotic  region- 
Nape  .  . 


Tertiaries  . 


Secondaries 


Primaries  .  . . 

Low.  coverts 

Tail _. 

Thumb  .  , 


Crown. 

Forehead. 

.  Nasal  fossa. 
Up.  mandible 
^.  Lower  " 
•-Throat. 


Showing  the  names  of  some  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  Bird. 


arm,  secondaries ;  to  the  humerus,  tertiaries.  Ranges  of 
shorter  feathers  cover  the  base  of  the  quills  above  and 
below,  and  are  called  coverts.  The  feathers  that  grow 
from  the  shoulder  are  called  scapulars ;  those  from  the 
thumb,  spurious  qtdlls.  The  bony  part  of  the  tail  is  very 
short,  but,  like  the  wings,  has  a  range  of  long  quills,  with 
upper  and  lower  coverts,  which  serve  both  for  ornament, 
and  to  aid  in  supporting  the  animal  in  the  air.  Both  the 
quills  and  feathers  consist  of  two  parts,  the  shaft  and  the 
vane ;  the  former  is  the  axis,  and  the  latter  the  expanded 
portion.  The  vane  consists  of  laminae,  which  are  con- 
nected by  minute  barbs  along  their  edges,  and  thus  ren- 
dered firm  to  resist  the  air.  There  are,  however,  on 
every  bird  downy  feathers,  or  such  as  do  not  have  the 
laminae  united.  The  feathers  of  Birds  do  not  grow  from 
the  entire  surface  of  the  body,  but  are  symmetrically  and 
systematically  arranged  in  rows  and  patches,  with  bare 
intervening  spaces  ;  and  the  arrangement  is  different  in 
different  groups,  and  may  yet  be  made  an  important  ele- 
ment in  classification.  The  hind  locomotive  members 


I  1 8  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

of  birds  are  each  composed  of  a  femur ;  a  tibia  and  fibula, 
the  last  two  more  or  less  united  ;  a  tarsus  and  metatarsus, 
the  latter  more  or  less  merged  in  the  former ;  and  gener- 
ally of  three  toes  before  and  a  thumb  behincl,  the  latter, 
however,  sometimes  wanting.  The  tibia  and  fibula  are 
connected  with  the  femur  by  an  articulation  with  a  spring, 
which  keeps  up  the  extension  without  any  effort  on  the 
part  of  the  muscles.  And  here  it  may  be  stated  as  an 
interesting  fact,  that  there  is  a  series  of  muscles  reaching 
from  the  pelvis  to  the  toes,  and  so  arranged  that  the 
mere  weight  of  the  bird  flexes  the  toes,  thus  enabling  it 
to  sleep  in  perfect  security,  even  though  perched  on  one 
foot.  The  number  of  joints  in  the  thumb  is  two,  in  the 
n^xt  toe  three,  in  the  next  four,  and  in  the  outer  one  five. 
The  bones  of  birds  are  hollow  ;  hence  very  light  in  com- 
parison to  their  size  and  strength. 

The  respiratory  system  of  birds  is  extensive ;  the  air 
filling  not  only  the  lungs,  but  cells  in  other  parts  of  the 
body,  and  even  the  cavities  of  the  bones.  Thus  the  light- 
ness of  the  bones  and  the  numerous  air-cavities  combine 
to  diminish  the  specific  gravity  of  the  animal,  and  to 
adapt  it  to  the  medium  in  which  it  moves.  The  rings 
of  the  trachea  are  entire.  At  its  bifurcation  there  is 
a  glottis,  generally  furnished  with  peculiar  muscles,  and 
called  the  inferior  larynx  ;  and  this  is  the  point  where 
the  voice  of  birds  is  produced.  The  superior  larynx  is 
very  simple.  It  enters  the  inferior,  but  has  little  to  do 
with  the  voice. 

The  horny  covering  upon  the  mandibles  performs  the 
functions  of  teeth,  and  in  some  species  the  edges  are  so 
notched  as  to  resemble  real  teeth.  The  stomach  is  com- 
posed of  three  parts :  the  crop,  which  is  an  enlargement 
of  the  oesophagus  ;  a  membranous  stomach,  in  whose  walls 
are  numerous  glands  which  furnish  juices  to  moisten  the 
food  ;  and  the  gizzard,  where  the  food  is  finally  digested. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  1 19 

The  brain  of  birds  is  comparatively  very  large.  The 
eyes  are  so'  constructed,  that  with  equal  facility  they  can 
distinguish  objects  near  or  remote.  Besides  the  two  or- 
dinary eyelids,  there  is  a  third  one  placed  at  the  inner 
angle,  and  which  can  instantly  be  drawn  over  the  eye 
like  a  curtain.  It  is  called  the  nictitating  membrane, 
and  serves  a  most  important  office  in  the  protection  of 
the  eye.  The  ear  has  but  a  single  small  bone,  formed  of 
one  branch  that  adheres  to  the  tympanum,  and  of  another 
terminating  in  a  plate  that  rests  upon  the  fenestra  ovalis ; 
the  cochlea  is  a  slightly  arcuated  cone,  but  the  semi- 
circular canals  are  large.  Nocturnal  birds  alone  have 
an  external  conch.  The  organ  of  smell  is  concealed  in 
the  base  of  the  bill.  The  tongue  has  but  little  muscular 
substance,  and  the  taste  is  probably  not  very  delicate. 

The  plumage  of  birds  is  rendered  water-proof  by  the 
oil  with  which  they  dress  their  feathers,  and  which  is  fur- 
nished by  a  special  gland  at  the  hind  part  of  the  body. 

Birds  moult  their  feathers  twice  a  year.  In  some,  the 
winter  plumage  differs  in  its  colors  from  that  of  summer. 
In  a  majority  of  cases  the  colors  of  the  male  are  more 
brilliant  than  those  of  the  female  ;  and  when  this  is  the 
case,  the  young  of  both  sexes  resemble  the  adult  female. 
When  the  adult  male  and  female  are  of  the  same  color, 
their  young  have  colors  peculiar  to  themselves. 

Birds  lay  eggs,  and  sit  upon  them  to  hatch  them.  The 
egg  in  the  ovary  consists  merely  of  the  part  we  call  yolk ; 
it  imbibes  the  external  fluid  called  the  white  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  oviduct,  and  becomes  covered  with  a  shell  at 
the  bottom  of  the  same  canal.  The  young  bird  of  every 
kind  has  a  horny  point  at  the  extremity  of  the  bill,  with 
which  it  breaks  the  shell,  and  which  falls  off  a  few  days 
after  it  is  hatched.  This  may  be  seen  by  every  one  on 
the  bill  of  the  young  chicken.  Most  birds  build  nests  in 
which  to  lay  their  eggs,  and  it  is  an  interesting  fact  that 


I2O  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

all  individuals  of  a  species  build  alike,  and,  in  a  given 
locality,  of  the  same  kinds  of  material.  Their  skill  and 
industry  are  in  the  highest  degree  remarkable,  but  can- 
not be  dwelt  upon  here.  Their  ability  to  anticipate 
atmospheric  changes  is  truly  wonderful,  and  caused  the 
ancients  to  attribute  to  them  the  power  of  divination. 
Cuvier  says  that  on  this  faculty  depends  the  instinct 
which  acts  upon  birds  of  passage,  prompting  them  to 
seek  the  sunny  climes  on  the  approach  of  winter,  and 
their  old  homes  as  summer  comes  again. 

The  longevity  of  birds  is  regarded  as  about  ten  times 
as  great  as  the  period  which  they  require  to  come  to 
maturity  or  full  growth.  Domestic  fowls  live  to  the  age 
of  twenty  years  ;  parrots,  thirty  years  ;  geese,  fifty ;  while 
swans,  ravens,  and  eagles  are  said  to  live  a  century. 

The  Class  of  Birds  comprises  ten  to  twelve  thousand 
species,  and  is  divided  into  seven  Orders  * :  the  Order  of 
Raptores  or  Raveners,  the  Order  of  Scansores  or  Climb- 
ers, the  Order  of  Insessores  or  Perchers,  the  Order  of 
Rasores  or  Scratchers,  the  Order  of  Cursores  or  Runners, 
the  Order  of  Grallatores  or  Waders,  and  the  Order  of 
Natatores  or  Swimmers. 

SUB-SECTION   I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  RAPTORES,   OR   BIRDS   OF  PREY. 

THE  Order  of  Raptores  comprises  all  Birds  of  Prey,  or 
those  which,  with  few  exceptions,  pursue  and  capture 
birds  and  other  animals  for  food.  They  are  mostly  of 

*  Bonaparte  and  some  others  divide  the  Class  of  Birds  into  two  Sub- 
classes, called  ALTRICES  and  PRECOCES,  the  former  comprising  those  whose 
young  hatch  in  a  very  feeble  condition,  and  require  to  be  fed  for  a  consider- 
able time  from  the  bill  of  the  parent,  and  the  latter  those  whose  young  are 
able  to  run  about  and  pick  up  food  for  themselves  as  soon  as  hatched. 
Each  of  these  Sub-classes  is  divided  into  orders  which  stand  in  parallel 
series. 


RAPTORES  I    VULTURID.E.  121 

large  size,  and  are  characterized  by  strong,  hooked  bills, 
sharp  claws,  great  extent  of  wing,  and  very  powerful 
muscles  ;  and  the  females  are  generally  larger  than  the 
males.  The  plumage  of  the  young  and  of  the  immature 
differs  greatly  from  that  of  the  adult.  They  live  in  pairs, 
and  choose  their  mates  for  life.  The  Raptores  comprise 
three  families, — Vulturidae  or  Vulture  Family,  Falconidae 
or  Falcon  Family,  and  Strigidae  or  Owl  Family. 

VULTURID.E,  OR  VULTURE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  rapacious  birds  which  have  the  eyes  on  a  level 
with  the  sides  of  the  head,  which  is  partially  naked  or 
only  sparsely  covered  with  downy  feathers.  The  tal- 
ons are  comparatively  slender,  and  but  little  curved. 
Vultures  are  cowardly,  seldom  capturing  prey  unless 
forced  to  do  so  by  hunger,  preferring  to  feed  on  dead 
and  decaying  animals  which  they  find,  and  which  either 
by  scent  or  sight,  or  both  together,  they  discover  at  great 
distances.  Of  all  animals,  they  are  probably  the  most 
gluttonous  and  loathsome  in  their  manner  of  feeding. 
They  are  found  in  nearly  all  countries  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. 

The  Genus  Vtdtur — Vultures  proper  —  comprises  the 
Vultures  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  King  of  Vultures,  and 
the  Condor  of  South  America. 

The  Condor,  V.  gryphus,  Linn.,  of  the  Andes,  is  the 
largest  of  all  the  birds  of  prey,  being  four  feet  long,  and 
having  a  spread  of  wing  of  nine  feet ;  and  it  is  said  in 
some  cases  the  spread  is  fourteen  feet.  This  gigantic 
bird  perches  upon  the  high  cliffs  of  the  mountains,  till 
impelled  by  hunger,  when  it  soars  away,  sometimes  at 
the  immense^  height  of  six  miles,  keenly  surveying  the 
surrounding  country  for  its  accustomed  food. 

The  Genus  Cathartes  comprises  the  North  American 
Vultures. 

The  Turkey  Buzzard  or  Turkey  Vulture,  C.  aura,  Illig., 
6 

t 


122 


VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 


of  all  North  America  except  the  Arctic  regions,  is  thirty 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty-three  inches. 


Fig.  88. 


California  Vulture,  C.  californianus,  Shaw. 

The  California  Vulture,  C.  californianus,  Cuv.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  the  largest  rapacious  bird  in  Amer- 
ica, except  the  Condor,  being  from  forty-five  to  fifty  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  thirty  inches  ;  the  color  black,  with  a 
white  transverse  band  upon  the  wings,  the  head  and 
neck  orange  yellow  and  red. 

The  Black  Vulture  or  Carrion  Crow,  C.  atratus,  Les- 


RAPTORES  I    FALCONIDjE.  123 

son,  of  the  Southern  States  to  Chili,  is  about  twenty- 
three  inches  long,  and  is  abundant  even  in  the  cities^ 
where  it  performs  the  important  office  of  scavenger. 

Burrough's  Vulture,  C.  Burrovianus,  Cassin,  of  Mexico 
and  Lower  California,  is  the  smallest  of  the  genus,  be- 
ing about  twenty-two  inches  in  length. 

The  Genus  Gypcetos  comprises  the  Laemmergeyer  of 
the  Alps  and  other  high  mountains  of  the  Eastern  hemi- 
sphere, which  is  the  largest  bird  of  prey  in  the  Old  World, 
being  but  little  smaller  than  the  Condor.  It  builds  its 
nests  upon  inaccessible  acclivities,  attacks  lambs,  goats, 
and  the  chamois,  and  it  is  asserted  that  even  infants  have 
been  carried  off  by  it. 

FALCONID.E,  OR  FALCON  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  of  prey  which  have  the  head  completely  cov- 
ered with  feathers,  the  eyes  more  or  less .  sunken,  and 
exceedingly  sharp  talons  and  powerful  muscles.  They 
are  adapted,  both  by  their  organization  and  courage,  for 
the  capture  of  living  prey,  although  in  these  respects 
they  differ  greatly  among  themselves. 

The  Genus  Falco  —  Falcons  —  has  the  form  robust  and 
compact ;  the  bill  short  and  strongly  curved  from  the 
base  to  the  point,  near  which  is  a  distinct  and  generally 
prominent  tooth  ;  the  nostrils  circular,  with  a  central 
tubercle  ;  wings  long  and  pointed ;  tail  long  and  wide ; 
tarsi  short  and  covered  with  circular  or  hexagonal  scales, 
and  the  middle  toe  long  ;  claws  large,  strong,  curved,  and 
very  sharp.  The  falcons  are  remarkable  for  exceedingly 
rapid  flight,  and  great  boldness  in  attacking  their  prey. 
They  are  the  birds  used  in  falconry,  and  several  of  the 
species  are  extremely  docile,  being  readily  trained  to  pur- 
sue game,  and  return  at  call. 

The  Duck  Hawk  or  Peregrine  Falcon,  F.  anatum,  Bo- 
naparte, of  North  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
is  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long,  the  wings  fourteen 


124 


VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 


Fig.  89. 


Duck  Hawk,  or  Peregrine  Falcon,  F.  anatutn,  Bonap. 


to  fifteen  inches ;  the  upper  parts  bluish-cinereous,  with 
transverse  bands  of  brownish  black  ;  under  parts  yellow- 
ish white,  with  heart-shaped  and  circular  spots  of  black 
on  the  breast  and  abdomen,  and  transverse  bands  of 
black  upon  the  sides,  under  tail  coverts,  and  tibiae ;  quills 
and  tail  brownish  black.  The  frontal  band  is  white,  the 

cheeks  with  a 
patch  of  black, 
bill  light  blue, 
and  the  legs 
and  toes  yel- 
low. Young- 
er specimens 
have  the  upper 
parts  brown- 
ish black,  the  under  parts  darker  than  in  the  adult,  and 
with  longitudinal  stripes  of  brownish  black ;  the  tarsi 
and  toes  of  a  bluish  lead-color,  frontal  band  obscure, 
and  a  large  black  patch  on  the  cheek.  This  falcon  pur- 
sues its  prey  with  almost  inconceivable  velocity  through 
all  its  turnings  and  windings,  and  when  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  quarry  protrudes  its  powerful  legs  and  talons 
to  their  full  extent,  almost  closes  its  wings  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  the  next  instant  grasps  the  prize,  and  bears 
it  away  to  a  secluded  place,  or,  if  too  heavy,  forces  it 
obliquely  to  the  ground,  and  devours  it  on  the  spot.  The 
Duck  Hawk  not  only  pursues  ducks  and  other  birds 
upon  the  wing,  but,  sweeping  over  the  water,  it  catches 
up  ducks  and  teal  and  other  swimming-birds.  One  has 
been  known  to  come,  at  the  report  of  a  gun,  and  bear 
away  a  teal  not  thirty  paces  from  the  hunter  who  had 
shot  it. 

The  Common  Peregrine  Falcon,  F.  peregrinus,  Gm.,  of 
Europe,  closely  resembles  the  preceding.  It  was  formerly 
much  used  in  falconry. 


RAPTORES:  FALCONIDjE.  125 

The  Black-headed  Falcon,  F.  nigriceps,  Cass.,  of  West- 
ern North  and  South  America, 'is  closely  related  to  the 
two  preceding,  but  is  smaller. 

The  Pigeon  Hawk,  F.  cohtmbarius,  Linn.,  of  the  warm 
and  temperate  parts  of  America,  is  twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  eight  to  nine  inches ;  the 
male  ten  to  eleven  inches,  and  the  wing  seven  and  a 
half  to  eight  inches.  In  the  adult  the  upper  parts  are 
bluish-slate,  every  feather  with  a  longitudinal  black  line  ; 
forehead  and  throat  white;  and  the  other  under  parts 
pale  yellowish  or  reddish  white,  every  feather  with  a  lon- 
gitudinal line  of  brownish  black.  The  bill  is  blue,  cere 
and  legs  yellow,  quills  black,  tipped  with  ashy  white,  tail 
light  bluish-ashy  tipped  with  white,  and  With  a  broad  sub- 
terminal  black  band,  and  several  other  narrower  trans- 
verse bands  of  the  same  color.  This  spirited  little  falcon 
preys  upon  pigeons,  teal,  and  most  of  the  smaller  birds. 
In  the  latter  part  of  summer  and  early  autumn  it  is 
a  constant  attendant  upon  the  flocks  of  birds  that  are 
assembling  for,  or  making,  their  southward  migrations, 
and  fattens  upon  those  it  chooses  to  select.  It  generally 
flies  low,  skimming  over  fields,  and  along  the  hedges 
and  skirts  of  woodlands,  searching  for  its  favorite  prey. 

The  Orange-breasted  Hawk,  F.  aurantius,  Gm.,  of  Texas 
and  South  America,  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the  pigeon 
hawk. 

F.  femoralis,  Temm..,  of  New  Mexico  and  South  Amer- 
ica, is  somewhat  larger  than  the  pigeon  hawk. 

The  Prairie  Falcon,  F.  polyagrus,  Cass.,  of  Western 
North  America,'  is  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  thirteen  to  fourteen  inches ;  the  plumage  above 
brown ;  a  narrow  frontal  band,  a  line  over  the  eye,  and 
under  parts,  white  ;  the  breast  and  abdomen  with  longi- 
tudinal stripes  and  spots  of  brown,  which  color  also  forms 
a  large  spot  on  the  flank. 


126  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Gerfalcon,  F.  candicans,  Gm.,  of  Northern  North 
America  and  Greenland,  is  about  twenty-four  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  sixteen  inches,  the  plumage  white,  the  up- 
per parts  with  irregular  confluent  bands  and  large  sub- 
terminal  sagittate  or  hastate  .spots  of  ashy-brown,  and  the 
under  parts  with  a  few  narrow  stripes  of  brown.  Younger 
specimens  have  the  brown  predominating,  of  a  lighter 
shade  than  in  the  adult,  and  barred  and  spotted  with 
white,  the  under  parts  whitish,  with  longitudinal  stripes 
of  brown. 

The  Gerfalcon  or  Iceland  Falcon,  F.  icelandicus,  Sabine, 
of  Northern  North  America  and  Greenland,  can  only  be 
distinguished  from  the  preceding  by  the  markings  on  the 
upper*  surface  of  the  body,  the  brown,  transverse  bands 
in  the  present  species  being  regular  and  very  distinct. 

The  Gerfalcon  of  Iceland  and  the  North  of  Europe  is 
undoubtedly  the  same  species  as  the  Iceland  falcon.  The 
Gerfalcons  are  the  most  highly  esteemed  by  falconers. 

The  Sparrow  Hawk,  F.  sparveritis, 
Linn.,  of  the  entire  continent  of 
America,  is  eleven  to  twelve  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  seven  to  seven 
and  a  half  inches ;  the  top  of  the 
head,  neck  behind,  back,  rump,  and 
tail,  light  rufous  or  cinnamon  color ; 
the  under  parts  generally  of  a  paler 
shade  of  the  same  rufous  as  the  back, 
and  always  with  circular  or  oblong 
Sparrow  Hawk,  spots  of  black.  The  frontal  band,  and 

F.  spawns  Linn.  ^^  including  the  eyes  and  throat, 
are  white  ;  a  spot  on  the  neck  behind,  two  on  each  side 
of  the  neck,  and  a  line  running  downwards  from  before 
the  eye,  black.  The  Sparrow  Hawk  feeds  upon  small 
birds,  mice,  and  other  small  animals,  and  never  attacks 
poultry.  It  becomes  greatly  attached  to  a  particular 


RAPTORES:  FALCONIM:.  127 

locality,  and  may  be  seen  day  after  day  on  the  same 
tree,  stump,  or  stake,  watching  for  prey. 

The  Genus  Astur — Goshawk  and  allies  —  has  the  up- 
per mandible  lobed,  but  not  toothed,  the  form  somewhat 
long,  wings  rather  short,  tail  broad  and  long,  tarsi  long 
and  covered  in  front  with  wide  transverse  scales.  Twelve 
species  are  known  which  belong  to  this  genus,  only  one 
of  which  is  found  in  North  America. 

The  Goshawk,  A.  atricapillus,  Bonap.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
about  fourteen  inches ;  the  male  about  twenty  inches, 
and  the  wing  twelve  and  a  half  inches.  The  head  above, 
neck  behind,  and  a  stripe  from  behind  the  eye,  black ; 
the  other  upper  parts  dark  ashy-bluish.  There  is-  a  con- 
spicuous white  stripe  over  the  eye,  and  the  entire  un- 
der parts  are  mottled  with  white  and  light  ashy-brown. 
Young  specimens  have  the  upper  parts  dark-brown,  and 
the  under  parts  white,  every  feather  with  a  longitudinal 
stripe  terminating  in  an  ovate  spot  of  brown.  The  Gos- 
hawk spends  much  of  the  time  upon  the  wing.  It  pur- 
sues birds  with  great  swiftness,  and  sometimes  with 
meteor-like  velocity  it  glides  into  the  forest  and  emerges 
with  a  hare  or  squirrel  which  its  quick  eye  had  singled 
out.  The  nest  is  large,  and  placed  on  a  tree  near  its 
trunk ;  and  the  eggs  are  bluish-white,  sparingly  spotted 
with  light  reddish-brown. 

•  The  Genus  Accipiter  has  a  more  slender  form  than  the 
preceding,  but  is  otherwise  similar,  having  also  the  lobed 
upper  mandible.  About  twenty  species  are  known,  three 
of  which  belong  to  North  America. 

Cooper's  Hawk,  A.  Coopcrii,  Bonap.,  of  all  temperate 
North  America,  is  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long,  the 
wing  ten  to  eleven  inches ;  the  male  sixteen  to  eigh- 
teen inches  long,  and  the  wing  nine  and  a  half  to  ten 
inches.  The  upper  parts  are  dark  ashy-brown,  the  head 


1 28  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

above  brownish-black,  and  an  obscure  rufous  collar  on 
the  neck  behind.  The  throat  and  under  tail  coverts  are 
white,  and  the  other  under' parts  transversely  barred  with 
light  rufous  and  white.  The  tail  is  dark  cinereous  tipped 
with  white,  and  crossed  by  four  wide  bands  of  brownish- 
black.  This  hawk  attacks  poultry,  grouse,  hares,  and 
squirrels. 

The  Blue-backed  Hawk,  A.  mexicanus,  Sw.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  intermediate  between  the  preceding 
and  the  following  species. 

The  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  A.  fuscus,  Bonap.,  of  the 
whole  of  North  America,  is  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  long, 
the  wing  seven  and  a  half  to  eight  inches ;  the  male  ten 
to  eleven  inches,  and  the  wing  six  inches  to  six  and  a 
half.  The  upper  parts  brownish-black  tinged  with  ashy  ; 
throat  and  under  tail  coverts  white,  the  former  with  lines 
of  black  on  the  shafts  of  the  feathers ;  the  other  under 
parts  light  rufous,  deepest  on  the  tibiae,  and  with  trans- 
verse bands  of  white ;  the  tail  ashy-brown  tipped  with 
white,  and  the  secondaries  and  tertiaries  with  large  par- 
tially concealed  spots  of  white.  Younger  specimens  are 
dull  umber-brown  above,  tinged  with  ashy ;  under  parts 
white,  with  stripes  and  spots  of  reddish-brown.  The 
slender  legs  and  toes  of  this  species  will  generally  be 
sufficient  to  distinguish  it.  Its  flight  is  swift,  but  irregu- 
lar and  vacillating. 

The  Genus  Buteo  —  Buzzards  —  has  the  bill  short  and 
wide  at  the  base,  the  edges  of  the  upper  mandible  lobed, 
the  wings  long  and  wide,  the  fourth  and  fifth  quills  usu- 
ally longest,  the  tarsi  moderate,  robust  and  with  trans- 
verse scales  before  and  behind,  and  with  hexagonal  scales 
on  the  sides.  About  thirty  species  are  known. 

Swainson's  Buzzard,  B.  Swainsoni,  Bonap.,  of  Northern 
and  Western  North  America,  is  about  twenty  inches  in 
length. 


RAPTORES I    FALC 


Baird's  Buzzard,  B.  Bairdii, 
Western  North  America,  is  eighteei 
long,  and  wing  fifteen  inches. 

The  Red-tailed  Black  Hawk,  B.  calurus,  Cass.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  twenty-one  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  sixteen  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Brown  Hawk,  Buteo  insignatus,  Cass.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  nineteen  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  sixteen  inches ;  the  male  seventeen  inches,  and 
the  wing  fourteen  and  a  half  inches. 

Harlan's  Buzzard,  B.Harlani,  Bonap.,  of  Western  North 
America,  is  twenty-one  inches  long,  and  the  wings  six- 
teen inches. 

The  Red-tailed  Hawk,^.  borealis,Vie\\\.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  southward  to  the 
West  Indies,  is  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  inches  long, 
the  wing  fifteen  to  sixteen  inches  in  length ;  the  male 
nineteen  to  twenty-one  inches  long,  and  the  wing  four- 
teen inches.  The  upper  parts  are  dark  umber-brown, 
the  tail  bright  rufous  tipped  with  white,  and  with  a  sub- 
terminal  band  of  black ;  the  under  parts  pale  yellowish- 
white,  with  lines  and  spots  of  reddish-brown  ;  and  the 
under  surface  of  the  tail  silvery  white.  This  hawk  is 
powerful ;  its  flight  is  firm  and  protracted,  and  generally 
accompanied  with  a  mournful  cry.  When  it  espies  an 
intended  victim,  it  alights  upon  a  tree  and  watches  for  a 
short  time,  and  then,  with  wings  partly  closed,  descends 
swiftly  upon  the  prey.  When  scanning  a  region,  it  some- 
times sweeps  around  in  broad  circles,  and  thus  rises  to 
such  a  height  as  to  be  scarcely  visible.  Sometimes  this 
hawk  takes  its  stand  upon  a  tall  tree,  and  watches  silently 
for  hours  for  a  good  opportunity,  which  it  seldom  fails  to 
improve.  Poultry,  hares,  and  squirrels  fall  an  easy  prey. 
This  hawk  builds  its  nest,  which  is  large  and  flat,  in 
the  forked  branches  of  one  of  the  largest  trees  of  the 
6*  i 


I  30  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

forest,  and  lays  four  or  five  eggs  of  a  dull  white  color, 
with  brown  and  black  blotches. 

The  Western  Red-tailed  Hawk,  B.  montanus,  Nutt,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  closely  related  to  B.  borealis, 
but  appears  to  be  somewhat  larger. 

The  Red-shouldered  Hawk,  B.  lineatus,  Jardine,  of 
Eastern  and  Northern  North  America,  is  twenty-one  to 
twenty-three  inches  long,  the  wing  fourteen  inches  ;  the 
male  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twelve 
inches.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common  hawks  of  the 
region  it  inhabits,  and  is  readily  distinguished  by  its  wing 
coverts,  which,  from  the  flexure  to  the  body,  are  bright 
rufous.  The  upper  parts  are  brown,  the  under  parts 
paler  orange-rufous,  quills  brownish-black  with  white 
spots  on  their  outer  webs,  and  with  bars  of  a  lighter 
shade  of  brown,  and  of  white  on  their  inner  webs.  The 
tail  is  brownish-black,  with  about  five  transverse  bands 
of  white,  and  tipped  with  white.  This  hawk  prefers  the 
forest,  and  generally  hunts  in  pairs.  During  the  spring, 
especially,  its  discordant  notes  may  be  heard  daily.  Its 
nest  is  made  in  the  top  of  a  large  tree  ;  eggs  four  to  five, 
granulated,  pale  blue,  faintly  blotched  with  brownish-red 
at  the  smaller  end. 

The  Red-bellied  Hawk,  B.  elegans,  Cass.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  closely  related  to  B.  lineatus. 

The  Broad-winged  Hawk,  B.  pennsylvanicus,  Bonap., 
of  Eastern  North  America,  is  seventeen  to  eighteen  inches 
long,  the  wing  eleven  inches  ;  the  male  sixteen  inches, 
and  the  wing  ten.  The  upper  parts  are  umber-brown, 
throat  white  with  lines  of  brown,  the  breast  with  a  wide 
band  of  spots  and  bands  of  ferruginous  tinged  with  ashy, 
and  the  other  under  parts  white  with  numerous  sagittate 
spots  of  reddish.  The  quills  are  brownish-black,  widely 
bordered  with  white  on  their  inner  webs,  and  the  tail 
dark  brown,  narrowly  tipped  with  white,  and  with  one 


I 

RAPTORES:    FALCONIDjE.  13! 

wide  band  of  white  and  several  narrower  bands  near  the 
base. 

The  California  Hawk,  B.  Cooperi,  Cass.,  of  California, 
is  about  the  size  of  B.  borealis,  and  may  be  distinguished 
from  all  others  of  this  genus  in  North  America  by  its 
brighter  colors. 

The  Genus  Archibuteo  is  distinguished  by  tarsi  densely 
feathered  to  the  toes,  but  more  or  less  naked  behind,  and 
covered  with  scales ;  wings  long  and  wide,  tail  rather 
short  and  wide,  and  toes  short. 

The  Rough-legged  Hawk,  A.  lagopus.  Gray,  of  tem- 
perate North  America  and  Europe,  is  twenty-one  to 
twenty-three  inches  long,  the  wing  sixteen  to  seventeen 
inches  ;  the  male  nineteen  inches,  and  the  wing  fifteen 
to  sixteen  inches.  The  plumage  is  irregularly  variegated 
with  dark  or  light  brown  and  white  or  whitish.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  widely  diffused  of  all  birds  ;  rather  sluggish 
in  its  habits,  flies  low,  and  frequents  low  grounds,  where 
it  sits  for  hours  watching  for  birds  and  small  quadrupeds. 

The  Black  Hawk,  A.  sancti-johannis,  Gray,  of  Eastern 
and  Northern  North  America,  is  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
four  inches  long,  the  wing  seventeen  to  seventeen  and  a 
half  inches ;  the  male  twenty  to  twenty-two  inches,  the 
wing  sixteen  to  sixteen  and  a  half  inches.  The  plumage 
is  glossy  black,  with  a  brownish  tinge.  The  tail  has  one 
transverse  band  of  white,  and  is  irregularly  marked  to- 
wards the  base  with  the  same  color.  Some  specimens 
are  dark  chocolate-brown,  with  the  head  striped  with  yel- 
lowish-white and  reddish-yellow ;  and  the  tail  with  several 
irregular  transverse  bands  of  white. 

The  California  Squirrel  Hawk,  A.  ferrugineus,  Gray, 
of  Western  North  America,  is  somewhat  larger  than 
either  of  the  two  preceding  ;  the  upper  parts  dark  brown 
and  light  rufous  ;  the  under  parts  of  the  body  white, 
with  narrow  longitudinal  lines  and  spots  on  the  breast 


132  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

of  reddish-brown,  and  narrow  irregular  transverse  lines 
of  the  same  color,  and  of  black,  on  the  abdomen  ;  -the 
tibiae  and  tarsi  bright  ferruginous,  with  transverse  lines 
of  black. 

The  Genus  Asturina  comprises  A.  nitida,  Bonap.,  of 
Northern  Mexico  and  South  America. 

The  Genus  Nauclerus  is  characterized  by  very  long 
and  pointed  wings,  and  very  long  and  forked  tail,  and  by 
short  bill,  tarsi,  and  toes.  Three  species  are  known,  two 
American  and  one  African. 

The  Swallow-tailed  Hawk,  N.  fiircatus,  Vigors,  of  the 
Eastern  United  States  to  the  Mississippi  and  northward 
to  Pennsylvania  and  Wisconsin,  is  twenty -three  to  twenty- 
five  inches  long,  the  wing  sixteen  to  seventeen  and  a 
half  inches ;  the  head  and  neck  and  entire  under  parts 
white ;  the  back,  wings,  and  tail  black,  with  a  metallic 
lustre.  The  flight  of  this  hawk  is  peculiarly  graceful,  and 
its  motions  very  rapid.  It  glides  along  with  gentle  flap- 
pings, rises  in  circles,  describes  deep  curves,  and  performs 
all  kinds  of  evolutions  in  a  manner  that  never  fails  to 
interest  the  beholder.  It  never  attacks  birds,  but  preys 
upon  insects  and  reptiles,  and  always  devours  its  prey 
while  on  the  wing. 

The  Genus  Elamts  has  the  wings  long  and  pointed, 
tail  moderate  and  emarginate,  but  not  forked. 

The  White-tailed  Hawk,  E.  leucurus,  Bonap.,  of  the 
Southern  and  Western  States  and  of  South  America,  is 
fifteen  to  seventeen  inches  long  ;  the  head  and  tail  and 
entire  under  parts  white  ;  the  upper  parts  light  cinereous, 
lesser  wing  coverts  glossy  black,  inferior  wing  coverts 
white  with  a  smaller  patch  of  black. 

The  Genus  Ictinia  is  characterized  by  a  short  and 
compact  body,  wings  long  and  pointed,  tail  short  and 
emarginated,  and  the  tip  of  the  bill  emarginated. 

The  Mississippi  Kite,  /.  mississippiensis,  Gray,  of  the 


RAPTORES:  FALCONID.E.  133 

Southern  States,  is  about  fifteen  inches  long,  the  upper 
parts  dark  lead-color,  the  head  and  under  parts  dark 
cinereous,  the  quills  and  tail  brownish  black. 

The  Genus  Rostrhamtis  comprises  the  Black  Kite,  R. 
sociabilis,  D'Orb.,  of  Florida  and  southward,  which  is  six- 
teen inches  long,  black  except  the  tail  at  the  base  and 
under  tail  coverts,  which  are  white ;  bill  very  long  and 
slender. 

The  Genus  Circus  is  characterized  by  a  large  head, 
short  compressed  bill,  face  partially  encircled  by  a  ring 
or  ruff  of  projecting  feathers,  tarsi  long  and  slender,  and 
the  claws  rather  slender  and  weak.  This  genus  com- 
prises fifteen  species,  only  one  of  which  is  found  in  North 
America. 

The  Marsh  Hawk  or  Harrier,  C.  hudsonius,  VieilL,  of 
North  America  and  Cuba,  is  nineteen  to  twenty-one 
inches  long,  the  wing  fifteen  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  male 
sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  fourteen 
and  a  half  inches.  The  upper  parts  &nd  breast  are  pale 
bluish-cinereous,  the  upper  tail  coverts  and  under  parts 
white,  the  latter  with  small  cordate  or  hastate  spots  of 
light  ferruginous. 

About  seventy  species  of  eagles  belong  to  the  Fal- 
conidae. 

The  Genus  Aquila  is  characterized  by  a  large  and 
strong  form,  large,  strong  compressed  bill,  long  and 
pointed  wings,  short  and  very  strong  tarsi  feathered  to 
the  toes,  and  sharp,  strong,  and  curved  claws. 

The  Golden  Eagle  or  Ring-tailed  Eagle,  A.  canadettsis, 
Cass.,  of  all  North  America,  is  thirty-three  to  forty  inches 
long,  the  wing  twenty-five  inches  ;  the  male  thirty  to 
thirty-five  inches,  the  wing  twenty  to  twenty-three  inches. 
The  head  and  neck  behind  light  brownish-fulvous,  tail 
at  base  white,  terminal  portion  glossy  black,  all  other 
parts  rich  purplish-brown,  frequently  nearly  black  on 


134  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

the  under  parts  of  the  body.  Younger  specimens  are 
lighter  in  plumage.  The  Golden  Eagle  has  great  power 
of  flight,  but  not  the  speed  of  many  of  the  falcons  and 
hawks,  and  does  not  so  readily  pursue  and  capture  birds 
upon  the  wing ;  but  its  keen  sight  enables  it  to  spy  an 
object  of  prey  at  a  great  distance,  and  with  meteor-like 
swiftness  and  unerring  aim  it  falls  upon  its  victim.  At 
times  it  soars  to  great  heights,  moving  slowly  and  majes- 
tically in  broad  circles.  The  nest  of  the  Golden  Eagle 
is  placed  upon  a  shelf  of  a  ragged  and  generally  inacces- 
sible precipice.  It  is  flat  and  very  large,  and  consists  of 
dry  sticks.  The  eggs  are  two  in  number,  three  and  a 
half  inches  long,  and  two  and  a  half  inches  through, 
and  dull  white  with  undefined  patches  of  brown.  The 
Golden  Eagle  preys  upon  fawns,  hares,  wild  turkeys,  and 
other  large  birds.  It  does  not  attain  its  full  beauty  of 
plumage  till  the  fourth  year.  The  so-called  Ring-tailed 
Eagle  is  the  present  species  before  it  has  reached  ma- 
turity. The  European  Golden  Eagle  is  so  nearly  like 
the  American  one,  that  there  is  a  question  whether  it  is 
not  the  same  species. 

The  Genus  Halictus  is  characterized  by  large  size, 
strong  and  very  robust  form,  slightly  lobed  upper  man- 
dible, tarsi  short  and  naked,  or  only  feathered  for  a  short 
distance  below  the  joint  of  the  tibia  and  tarsus,  and 
the  toes  covered  with  scales.  Ten  or  twelve  species  are 
known,  all  of  which  subsist  mainly  upon  fishes. 

The  Northern  Sea-Eagle,  H.  pelagicus,  Sieb.,  of  the 
northern  parts  of  both  continents,  is  the  largest  of  all 
the  eagles.  The  female  is  forty-five  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  twenty-six  inches.  The  frontal  space,  greater  wing 
coverts,  abdomen,  and  tail  are  white  ;  all  other  parts  of 
the  plumage,  dark  brown  ;  bill  and  legs,  yellow. 

The  Washington  Eagle,  H.  Washingtonii,  Jard.,  of 
North  America,  is  forty-three  inches  in  length,  the  wing 


RAPTORES:  FALCONID^E.  135 

thirty-two  inches,  and  the  entire  plumage  dark  brown 
mixed  with  fulvous. 

The  Gray  Sea-Eagle,  H.  albicilla,  Cuv.,  of  Greenland 
and  Europe,  is  thirty-five  to  forty  inches  long,  the  tail 
white,  head  and  neck  yellowish  brown,  and  all  the  other 
plumage  dark  umber-brown.  It  is  very  common  on  the 
coast  of  Europe,  and  builds  its  nest  upon  high  cliffs. 

The  Bald  Eagle  or  White-headed  Eagle,  H.  leiico- 
cephalus,  Savig.,  of  all  temperate  North  America,  Green- 
land, Iceland,  and  accidental  in  Europe,  is  thirty-five  to 
forty  inches  long,  the  wing  twenty-three  to  twenty-five 
inches  ;  the  male  thirty  to  thirty-four  inches,  the  wing 
twenty  to  twenty-two  inches.  The  head,  and  the  tail 
and  its  coverts,  white ;  the  remaining  plumage  brownish 
black  ;  bill,  feet,  and  irides  yellow.  Younger  individuals 
have  the  entire  plumage  dark  brown,  bill  brownish  black, 
and  irides  brown.  The  term  "  bald  "  is  unfortunate  in  its 
application  to  this  eagle,  for  the  white  head  is  as  densely 
feathered  as  any  other  part.  When  moving  from  one 
region  to  another,  it  flies  by  continued  easy  flappings. 
When  searching  for  prey,  it  sails  with  wings  extended, 
and  occasionally  allowing  its  legs  to  hang  at  their  full 
length.  It  has  the  ability  of  ascending  in  circular  sweeps 
without  any  apparent  motion  of  the  wings  or  of  the  tail, 
and  it  often  rises  in  this  manner  until  it  disappears  from 
view.  When  at  an  immense  height,  and  as  if  observing 
an  object  on  the  ground,  it  sometimes  closes  its  wings, 
and  glides  towards  the  earth  with  such  velocity  that  the 
eye  can  scarcely  follow  it,  causing  a  loud  rustling  sound 
like  a  violent  gust  of  wind  among  the  branches  of  the 
forest.  The  White-headed  Eagle  prefers  the  lowlands 
of  the  sea-shores  and  lakes,  and  the  borders  of  large 
rivers,  and  is  less  frequently  seen  in  mountainous  re- 
gions. The  nest,  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter,  is  placed 
on  a  tall  tree,  and  is  composed  of  sticks  from  three  to 


136 


VERTEBRATES  I   BIRDS. 


five  feet  in  length,  together  with  turf,  rank  weeds,  and 
lichens,  and  is  occupied  by  the  same  pair  year  after 
year.  The  eggs  are  two  to  four,  dull  white,  and  equally 
rounded  at  both  ends.  The  attachment  of  the  parents 
to  the  young  while  unable  to  fly  is  very  great,  and  for  a 
man  to  ascend  to  the  nest  at  such  times  is  very  danger- 
ous ;  but  when  the  young  are  able  to  fly,  the  old  ones 
drive  them  from  the  nest,  to  which,  however,  they  return 
at  night  for  several  weeks.  This  eagle  preys  upon  fish, 


RAPTORES  :    FALCONHXE.  137 

large  birds,  and  various  quadrupeds.  During  spring  and 
summer,  instead  of  fishing  for  itself,  it  watches  the  fish- 
hawk,  and,  as  soon  as  the  latter  rises  from  the  water 
with  a  fish,  it  rushes  forth  in  pursuit,  and  the  indus- 
trious bird  is  obliged  to  drop  its  well-earned  prey  in 
order  to  save  its  own  life,  when,  with  the  quickness  of 
thought,  the  eagle  sweeps  down  and  seizes  the  fish  while 
it  is  yet  falling,  and  bears  it  away.  This  eagle  enjoys 
the  honor  of  standing  as  our  national  emblem. 

The  Genus  Pandion  is  characterized  by  a  rather  heavy 
form,  very  long  wings,  tarsi  thick  and  strong  and  covered 
with  small  circular  scales,  claws  large,  curved,  and  very 
rough  beneath.  Three  or  four  species  are  known. 

The  American  Fish-Hawk  or  Osprey,  P.  carolinensis> 
Bonap.,  of  all  temperate  North  America,  is  twenty-five 
inches  long  ;  the  wing  twenty-one  inches  ;  the  head  and 
entire  under  parts  white ;  a  stripe  through  the  eye,  the 
top  of  the  head,  and  upper  parts  of  the  body,  wings,  and 
tail,  deep  umber-brown  ;  the  bill  and  claws  bluish  black  ; 
the  tarsi  and  toes  greenish  yellow.  The  Osprey  preys 
wholly  or  mainly  upon  fish,  and  never  attacks  other  birds. 
When  searching  for  food,  it  flies  with  easy  flappings  at 
moderate  heights,  and  when  it  spies  a  fish  checks  its 
course,  seems  to  poise  itself  for  a  moment,  and  then 
plunges  headlong  and  with  great  rapidity  into  the  water 
to  secure  its  prey.  Rising,  it  mounts  into  the  air,  shakes 
the  water  from  its  plumage,  squeezes  the  fish  in  its  tal- 
ons, and  flies  to  feed  its  young,  or  to  a  tree  to  satisfy 
its  own  hunger.  The  Osprey  makes  its  nest  on  a  tall 
tree,  generally  in  the  vicinity  of  water.  It  is  four  feet 
across,  and  composed  of  sticks,  weeds,  and  grasses.  The 
eggs  are  three  or  four,  yellowish-white,  and  densely  cov- 
ered with  large  irregular  spots  of  reddish-brown.  So  mild 
is  -the  disposition  of  this  bird,  that  it  suffers  others  to 
build  their  nests  among  the  outer  sticks  of  its  own  nest. 


138  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Polyborus  is  characterized  by  rather  long 
bill,  long,  pointed  wings,  long  and  rather  slender  tarsi, 
and  rather  weak  claws. 

The  Mexican  Eagle  or  Caracara  Eagle,  P.  tharus,  Cass., 
of  Southern  North  America  and  of  South  America,  is 
sluggish  in  its  habits,  and  walks  on  the  ground  with  fa- 
cility. 

The  Genus  Craxirex  has  the  edges  of  the  upper  man- 
dible festooned. 

Harris's  Buzzard,  C.  unicinctus,  Cass.,  of  Southern  North 
America  and  of  South  America,  is  twenty-two  to  twenty- 
four  inches  long,  the  body  dark  brown,  shoulders,  wing 
coverts,  and  tibiae  reddish-chestnut,  and  the  tail  white  at 
the  base  and  tipped  with  white. 

STRIGID/E,  OR  OWL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
all  the  nocturnal  birds  of  prey.  They  are  characterized 
by  a  short  heavy  form,  large  head,  large  eyes  directed  for- 
ward, curved  bill  nearly  concealed  by  bristle-like  feathers, 
large  ear-cavities,  and  face  encircled  by  a  disk  of  short 
rigid  feathers,  which,  with  the  large  eyes,  give  to  these 
birds  an  expression  very  much  like  that  of  a  cat.  This 
family  is  represented  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  About 
one  hundred  and  fifty  species  are  known,  fprty  of  which 
belong  to  America. 

The  Genus  Strix  is  characterized  by  rather  small  eyes, 
and  conspicuous  facial  disc.  It  contains  twelve  species. 

The  Barn  Owl,  5.  pratincola,  Bonap.,  of  all  temperate 
North  America,  sixteen  inches  in  length  and  the  wing 
thirteen,  is  our  only  representative  of  this  genus.  It  is 
found  near  the  borders  of  the  forest,  and  frequently  re- 
sorts to  old  buildings  in  its  search  for  rats  and  mice. 

The  Genus  Bubo  —  Great  Horned  or  Cat  Owls  —  is 
characterized  by  large  size,  robust  and  powerful  form, 
conspicuous  ear-tufts,  and  very  large  eyes.  There  are 
about  fifteen  species  of  this  genus. 


RAPTORES  I    STRIGID/E. 


139 


The  Great  Horned 
Owl,  B.  virginianuSy 
Bonap.,  of  all  North 
America,  is  twenty- 
one  to  twenty -five 
inches  long,  the  wing 
fourteen  and,  a  half 
to  sixteen  ;  the  male 
eighteen  to  twenty- 
one  inches,  the  wing 
fourteen  to  fifteen 
inches.  Its  large  size 
and  conspicuous  ear- 
tufts  are  sufficient  to 
distinguish  it  from  all 
our  other  owls.  Its 
plumage  is  exceed- 
ingly various.  This 
owl  makes  great  hav- 
oc among  poultry, 
wild  turkeys,  and  grouse.  The  nest  is  usually  on  a  large 
branch,  and  not  far  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree ;  the  eggs 
three  to  six,  almost  globular,  and  white.  There  are  sev- 
eral varieties  of  this  species. 

The  Genus  Scops — Mottled  or  Screech  Owls  —  is  char- 
acterized by  small  size,  conspicuous  ear-tufts,  imperfect 
facial  disk,  short  bill  nearly  covered,  toes  long  and  gen- 
erally partly  covered  with  hair-like  feathers. 

The  Mottled  Owl  or  Screech  Owl,  5.  asio,  Bonap.,  of  all 
temperate  North  America,  is  nine  and  a  half  to  ten  inches 
long,  the  wing  seven  inches,  and  the  mal$  nearly  of  the 
same  size.  The  upper  parts  are  pale  ashy-brown  with 
longitudinal  lines  of  brownish  black,  and  irregularly  mot- 
tled with  the  same  and  with  cinereous ;  the  under  parts 
ashy  white,  with  longitudinal  stripes  of  brownish  black, 


Great  Homed  Owl,  B.  virginianus,  Bonap. 


140  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

and  with  transverse  lines  of  the  same  color.  Younger 
individuals  have  the  upper  parts  pale  brownish-red  with 
longitudinal  lines  of  brownish  black,  and  the  tail  rufous 
with  bands  of  brown.  This  owl  preys  upon  mice,  small 
birds,  and  beetles.  Its  notes  are  uttered  in  a  tremulous, 
doleful  manner,  and  may  be  heard  several  hundred  yards. 
It  often  comes  to  the  farm-houses,  and  alights  upon  the 
roof.  The  nest  is  in  a  hollow  tree  ;  the  eggs  are  four  or 
five,  white,  and  nearly  globular. 

The  Western  Mottled  Owl,  5.  McCallii,  Cass.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  closely  related  to  the  preceding 
one,  but  is  smaller. 

The  Genus  Otus — Long-eared  Owls — is  characterized 
by  a  longer  and  more  slender  form  than  the  preceding 
genera,  moderate-sized  head,,  ear-tufts  long  and  erectile, 
facial  disk  well  marked,  and  eyes  small  and  surrounded 
by  radiating  feathers.  Ten  or  twelve  species  are  known, 
only  one  of  which  belongs  to  North  America. 

The  Long-eared  Owl,  O.  Wilsonianus,  Lesson,  of  tem- 
perate North  America,  is  fifteen  inches  long,  the  wing 
eleven,  and  readily  distinguished  by  its  long  ear-tufts. 
It  lingers  about  mountain  streams,  perching  on  a  low 
tree  or  shrub.  When  disturbed,  it  does  not  fly,  but 
bounds  into  the  thicket,  and  makes  off  by  long  leaps. 
Its  cry  is  prolonged  and  plaintive,  consisting  of  two  or 
three  notes  repeated  at  intervals.  It  rears  its  young  in 
nests  which  it  finds,  seldom  making  one  for  itself. 

The  Genus  Brachyotus  —  Short-eared  Owls  —  is  char- 
acterized by  short  and  inconspicuous  ear-tufts. 

The  Short-eared  Owl,  B.  Cassinii,  Brewer,  of  temper- 
ate North  America  and  Greenland,  is  fifteen  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  twelve  inches. 

The  Genus  Syrnium —  Gray  Owls  —  is  characterized 
by  large  size,  large  head,  absence  of  ear-tufts,  rather 
small  eyes,  tail  usually  rounded  at  the  end,  and  the  preva- 
lent colors  of  the  plumage  gray  and  cinereous. 


RAPTORES:    STRIGID^.  14! 

The  Great  Gray  Owl,  5.  cinereum,  Aud.,  of  Northern 
North  America,  is  the  largest  of  our  owls,  being  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  eighteen.  In  win- 
ter it  wanders  over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States. 

The  Barred  Owl,  5.  nebulostim,  Gray,  of  Eastern  North 
America,  is  about  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
thirteen  to  fourteen  inches ;  the  upper  parts  light  ashy- 
brown,  with  transverse  narrow  bands  of  white ;  the  breast 
with  transverse  bands  of  brown  and  white ;  the  abdo- 
men ashy  white,  with  longitudinal  stripes  of  brown.  It 
destroys  poultry,  hares,  and  birds,  and  its  cry  is  very  loud 
and  discordant.  It  lays  four  to  six  globular  white  eggs 
in  a  hollow  tree. 

The  Genus  Nyctale  comprises  small  owls  with  small 
eyes,  and  ear-tufts  which  are  only  observable  when 
erected.  Four  species  belong  to  America. 

The  Sparrow  Owl,  N.  Richardsonii,  Bonap.,  of  North- 
ern North  America,  is  about  ten  and  a  half  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  seven  and  a  half  inches ;  the  upper  parts 
pale  reddish-brown  tinged  with  olive,  with  partially  con- 
cealed spots  of  white  ;  the  under  parts  ashy  white,  with 
longitudinal  stripes  of  reddish  brown ;  the  quills  brown, 
with  small  spots  of  white  on  their  outer  edge,  and  large 
spots  of  white  on  their  webs ;  the  tail  brown,  every  feather 
with  about  ten  pairs  of  white  spots. 

Kirtland's  Owl,  N.  albifrons,  Cass.,  of  Northern  North 
America,  is  about  eight  inches  long  ;  the  head,  upper 
part  of  the  breast,  and  entire  upper  parts,  chocolate- 
brown  ;  the  forehead,  throat,  and  a  line  running  down- 
wards from  the  base  of  the  under  mandible,  white ;'  the 
other  under  parts  of  the  body  reddish  ochre-yellow. 

The  Acadian  or  Saw-whet  Owl,  N.  acadica,  Bonap.,  of 
temperate  North  America,  is  seven  and  a  half  to  eight 
inches  long ;  the  upper  parts  brown  tinged  with  olive ; 
the  under  parts  ashy  white,  with  longitudinal  stripes  of 


142 


VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 


pale  reddish-brown.    Its  notes  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  the  noise  made  in  filing  the  teeth  of  a  large  saw. 

The  Genus  A thene — Burrowing  Owls  —  is  character- 
ized by  small  size,  rather  long  legs  thinly  covered  with 
short  feathers,  and  nearly  or  quite  naked  toes. 

The  Burrowing  Owl,  A.  hypugcea,  Bonap.,  is  about  nine 
inches  long,  and  is  found  from  the  Mississippi  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  lives  in  the  holes  of  the  Prairie 
Dog. 

The  Burrowing  Owl,  A.  cunicularia,  Bonap.,  is  about 
ten  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  is  found  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  in  South  America, 
The  Genus  Glaucidium,  —  Pygmy  Owls. 
The  Pygmy  Owl,  G.  gnoma,  Cass.,  of  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia, is  seven  inches  long,  and  the  wing  three  inches  and 
three  fourths,  being  the  smallest  owl  in  North  America. 
Fig.  93.  The  Genus  Nyc- 

tea  comprises  the 
Snowy  or  White 
Owl,  Nyctea  nivea, 
Gray,  of  the  north- 
ern regions  of  both 
continents,  which 
is  twenty-four  to 
twenty-seven  inch- 
es long,  the  wing 
sixteen  to  seven- 
teen inches,  and 
the  entire  plumage 
white,  frequently 
with  spots  or  irreg- 
ular bars  of  dark 
brown.  In  winter 
it  wanders  over  a 

Snowy  Owl,  Nyctea  nivea,  Gray.  great  part  of  North 


SCANSORES:    PSITTACID,E.  143 

America  and  Europe.  Unlike  those  before  described,  it 
hunts  in  the  daytime  as  well  as  in  twilight.  It  preys 
upon  quadrupeds,  birds,  and  fishes.  It  captures  ducks 
and  other  birds  upon  the  wing,  striking  them  much  after 
the  manner  of  falcons. 

The  Genus  Surnia  comprises  the  Hawk  Owl  or  Day 
Owl,  5.  ulula,  Bonap.,  of  the  northern  regions  of  both, 
continents,  which  is  sixteen  to  seventeen  inches  long, 
the  wing  nine  inches,  the  upper  parts  brown,  the  throat 
white,  a  large  brown  spot  on  each  side  of  the  breast,  and 
the  other  under  parts  with  transverse  stripes  of  pale 
ashy-brown.  It  has  the  general  appearance  and  habits 
of  both  an  owl  and  a  falcon,  and  is  mainly  a  diurnal  bird. 

SUB-SECTION   II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  SCANSORES,  OR  CLIMBERS. 

THE  Order  of  Scansores  comprises  all  birds  which 
have  their  toes  in  pairs,  two  in  front  and  two  behind, 
the  outer  anterior  one  being  usually  directed  backwards, 
—  an  arrangement  which  especially  facilitates  climbing. 
This  order  comprises  five  families,  —  Psittacidae  or  Parrot 
Family,  Ramphastidae  or  Toucan  Family,  Trogonidae  or 
Trogon  Family,  Cuculidae  or  Cuckoo  Family,  and  Picidae 
or  Woodpecker  Family. 

PSITTACHXE,  OR  PARROT  FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises birds  which  have  a  stout,  thick,  rounded  bill,  hooked 
at  the  tip,  and  the  base  covered  with  a  soft  skin  or  cere, 
as  in  the  hawks.  The  tongue  is  thick  and  fleshy,  the 
inferior  larynx  complicated  and  furnished  with  three 
muscles  on  each  side,  and  their  jaws  are  set  in  motion 
by  a  greater  number  of  muscles  than  is  found  in  other 
birds.  Most  of  them  are  adorned  with  varied  and  gor- 
geous plumage,  which,  together  with  the  facility  with 
which  many  of  them  may  be  trained  to  imitate  the 


144  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

human  voice,  has  ever  made  them  objects  of  attention. 
They  are  numerous,  and  confined  to  the  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical regions  of  both  hemispheres,  mainly  to  the  for- 
mer, and  each  region  has  its  peculiar  species.  They  are 
known  as  Parrots,  Macaws,  Cockatoos,  Paroquets,  and  are 
often  tamed  and  kept  as  pets. 

The  Genus  Conurus  is  characterized  by  feathered 
cheeks,  and  a  long,  conical  pointed  tail. 

The  Carolina  Parrot,  C.  carolinensis,  Kuhl.,  of  the  South- 
ern and  Southwestern  States,  is  the  only  representative 
of  its  genus  in  the  United  States.  It  is  thirteen  inches 
long,  the  wing  about  eight  inches,  the  head  and  neck 
gamboge-yellow,  forehead  and  sides  of  the  head  brick- 
red,  body  and  tail  green,  edge  of  wing  yellow,  and  bill 
white.  It  is  generally  found  in  flocks. 

Fig.  94. 


Carolina  Parrot,  C.  carolinensis,  Kuhl. 


RAMPHASTIM,  OR  TOUCAN   FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  birds  which  are  distinguished  from  all  others 


SCANSORES:    TROGONIDjE.  145 

by  their  enormous  bill,  which  is  almost  as  thick  and  long 
as  their  body,  and  which  is  light  and  cellular  internally, 
arcuated  near  the  end,  and  irregularly  indented  along  its 
edges.  Their  tongue  is  long,  and  fringed  with  barbs  on 
both  sides.  They  inhabit  the  warm  regions  of  South 
America.  Contrary  to  what  might  be  supposed,  they 
are  graceful  in  their  movements,  and  in  obtaining  their 
food  show  a  use  for  their  long  bills.  They  dip  them 
down  into  the  deep  and  hanging  nests  of  other  birds, 
and  extract  the  eggs  and  young  for  food.  They  also 
feed  upon  fish,  insects,  and  fruit.  They  throw  their  food 
into  the  air,  and  catch  it  as  it  descends,  and  thus  swal- 
low it  with  greater  facility.  About  twenty  species  are 
known. 

TROGONID^:,  OR  TROGON  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  with  a  broad  short  bill,  the  tip  hooked  and 
dentate,  and  the  base  surrounded  by  long  stiff  bristles, 
the  wings  short  and  rounded,  tail  elongated,  legs  small, 
tarsus  short  and  hidden  in  the  plumage.  They  live  upon 
insects,  build  their  nests  in  hollow  trees,  and  are  but  little 
upon  the  wing.  They  are  found  in  both  continents. 

The  Genus  Trogon  —  Trogons  —  has  the  bill  broad, 
both  mandibles  serrated,  and  the  anterior  toes  united  be- 
yond the  first  joint. 

The  Mexican  Trogon,  T.  mexicanus,  Sw.,  is  the  only 
representative  of  its  family  in  North  America.  It  is  ten 
and  three  fourths  inches  long,  the  wing  five  and  a  quar- 
ter inches ;  the  color  golden  green  above,  and  on  the 
neck  all  round ;  under  parts  carmine ;  forehead,  chin, 
and  side  of  the  head  black. 

CUCULHXE,  OR  CUCKOO  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  with  a  compressed,  gently  curved,  and  gen- 
erally lengthened  bill,  lengthened  tarsi,  rather  short  toes, 
long  and  soft  tail,  with  eight  to  twelve  feathers. 

The  Genus  Crotophaga  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the 
7  J 


146  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

head,  high  and  much  compressed ;  tail  feathers  eight,  and 
the  plumage  black. 

The  Black  Parrot,  C.  rugirostris,  Sw.,  of  Florida  to 
Brazil,  is  about  fifteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  six 
inches  ;  and  the  bill  with  faint  transverse  wrinkles  on 
the  gently  decurved  culmen. 

The  Ani,  C.  ani,  Linn.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  South- 
eastern North  America  and  southward,  is  twelve  inches 
long,  the  wing  over  six  inches,  the  bill  smooth,  and  the 
culmen  abruptly  decurved. 

The  Genus  Geococcyx  has  the  bill  longer  than  the  head, 
loral  feathers  stiff  and  bristly,  and  the  tail  feathers  ten. 
Birds  of  this  genus  live  on  the  ground. 

The  Paisano,  Road  Runner,  or  Chaparral  Cock,  G.  call- 
fornianus,  Baird,  of  Texas  to  California,  the  only  repre- 
sentative in  the  United  States,  is  twenty  to  twenty-three 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  six  inches  ;  all  the  feathers  of 
the  upper  parts  and  wings  of  a  dull  metallic  olivaceous- 
green,  broadly  edged  with  white  near  the  end ;  under 
parts  whitish.  The  legs  are  very  long,  and  it  can  run 
faster  than  a  fleet  horse.  It  frequents  the  highways. 

The  Genus  Coccygus — Cuckoos  —  comprises  birds  which 
have  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head,  decurved,  slender,  and 
attenuated  towards  the  end  ;  loral  feathers  soft,  tarsi 
shorter  than  the  toes,  and  the  tail  feathers  ten. 

The  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  C.  americanus,  Bonap.,  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri  plains,  is  twelve 
inches  long,  the  wing  about  six  inches  ;  the  upper  parts 
metallic  greenish-olive,  under  parts  white.  The  upper 
mandible  and  tip  of  the  lower  are  black ;  the  rest  of  the 
lower  mandible  and  edges  of  the  upper,  yellow.  The 
flight  of  this  bird  is  silent,  rapid,  and  horizontal.  It  is 
shy,  seeking  the  thickest  foliage,  where  it  sits  by  the  hour 
uttering  its  unpleasant  notes,  which  may  be  represented 
by  cow  cow  eight  or  ten  times  repeated.  It  feeds  on  in- 


SCANSORES:   CUCULID.E.  147 

sects,  and  upon  Fig.  95. 

eggs,  which   it 

steals  from  the 

nests   of  other 

birds.   It  builds 

its  nest  of  dry 

sticks  and  grass, 

on  a  horizontal 

branch.       The 

eggs    are    four 

or  five,   bright 

green. 

The       Black-  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo,  C.  americanusi  Bonap. 

billed  Cuckoo,  C.  erythrophthalmus,  Bonap.,  of  the  same 
region,  and  of  about  the  same  size  and  general  appear- 
ance and  habits  as  the  preceding  one,  may  at  once  be 
distinguished  by  its  entirely  black  bill,  and  the  naked 
red  skin  around  the  eye. 

The  Mangrove  Cuckoo,  C.  minor,  Cab.,  of  Florida,  is 
readily  distinguished  from  both  the  preceding  by  its  ful- 
vous under  parts  and  dark  ear  coverts. 

PICID.E,  OR  WOODPECKER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  characterized  by  a  straight,  rigid,  and  sharp 
bill,  which  is  specially  adapted  to  cutting  into  bark  or 
wood ;  and  by  a  long,  acute  tongue,  armed  towards  the 
tip  with  barbs,  and  capable  of  great  extension.  They 
have  stout  feet,  clothed  Before  with  broad  plates,  long 
wings,  ten  primaries,  and  twelve  tail  feathers,  the  exterior 
being  small  and  concealed.  Woodpeckers  feed  upon  the 
larvae  of  insects,  which  they  secure  by  introducing  their 
extensible  tongue  under  the  bark  of  trees,  or  into  crevices, 
or  into  holes  which  they  themselves  have  made,  and  then 
transfixing  the  larvae  with  the  barbed  point ;  or  the  larvae 
adhere  to  the  viscid  glue  with  which  the  tongue  is  cov- 
ered. They  are  very  common  in  both  hemispheres,  and 
about  twenty-five  species  are  found  in  North  America. 


!48  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Campephilus  comprises  Woodpeckers  which 
have  the  bill  considerably  longer  than  the  head,  feet  large, 
tail  long  and  cimeate,  wings  long  and  pointed,  the  color 
black  with  white  patches,  and  the  head  with  a  pointed 

crest. 

The  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker,  C.  principalis,  Gray,  of 
the  Southern  States,  is  twenty-one  inches  long,  the  wing 
ten  inches,  the  bill  ivory-white,  the  body  glossy-black,  a 
stripe  on  each  side  of  the  neck  and  markings  upon  the 
wings  white,  and  the  crest  scarlet.  The  female  is  with- 
out red  upon  the  head,  and  with  two  spots  of  white  on 
the  end  of  the  outer  tail  feather.  This  bird  moves  from 
the  top  of  one  tree  to  that  of  another  by  a  single  sweep, 
forming  a  most  elegant  curve.  Its  notes  are  clear  and 
loud,  yet  plaintive.  It  makes  its  nest  in  the  trunk  of 
a  live  tree,  in  a  hole  which  the  male  and  female  exca- 
vate by  their  mutual  labor. 

The  Imperial  Woodpecker,  C.  imperialis,  of  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding  one,  but 
larger. 

The  Genus  Picus  comprises  small  Woodpeckers  which 
have  the  bill  about  equal  in  length  to  the  head,  or  a  little 
longer,  and  the  lateral  ridges  conspicuous;  the  colors 
black  and  white.  The  four  first  mentioned  below  have 
the  middle  of  the  back  longitudinally  streaked  with  white, 
the  under  parts  white,  and  a  narrow  red  nuchal  band  ; 
and  the  first  two  have  the  outer  tail  feathers  pure  white. 

The  Hairy  Woodpecker  or  Sapsucker,  P.  villosus,  Linn., 
of  North  America,  is  eight  to  eleven  inches  long,  and,  in 
addition  to  the  above  characteristics,  has  the  wing  cov- 
erts and  innermost  secondaries  conspicuously  spotted 
with  white. 

Harris's  Woodpecker,  P.  Harrisii,  Aud.,  from  the  east- 
ern slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific,  is  nine 
and  a  half  inches  long,  and,  in  addition  to  the  above 


SCANSORES:  PICIM:.  149 

characteristics,  has  the  wing  coverts  uniform  black,  with- 
out spots. 

The  next  two  have  the  outer  tail  feathers  white,  with 
black  transverse  bands. 

The  Downy  Woodpecker,  P.  pubescens,  Linn.,  of  East- 
ern North  America,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  and 
is  a  miniature  of  the  Hairy  Woodpecker. 

Gairdner's  Woodpecker,  P.  Gairdneri,  Aud.,  from  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific,  is 
six  and  three  fourths  inches  long,  with  wing  coverts  and 
innermost  secondaries  nearly  uniform  black. 

The  two  following  have  the  middle  of  the  back  banded 
transversely  with  white  and  blacft,  the  under  parts  white 
with  black  spots  upon  the  sides. 

Nuttall's  Woodpecker,  P.  Nuttalli,  Gambel,  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  about  seven  inches  long,  and,  in  addition  to 
characteristics  mentioned  above,  has  the  entire  crown 
black,  nape  red,  both  spotted  with  white,  and  the  feathers 
at  the  base  of  the  bill  white. 

The  Texas  Sapsucker,  P.  scalaris,  Wagler,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long  ;  crown  and 
nape  red,  spotted  with  white. 

The  Red-cockaded  Woodpecker,  P.  borealis,  Vieill.,  of 
the  Southern  States,  is  seven  and  a  quarter  inches  long, 
the  wing  four  and  a  half  inches ;  the  upper  parts,  with 
top  and  sides  of  the  head,  black ;  the  back,  rump,  and 
scapulars  transversely  banded  with  white ;  a  silky  patch 
on  the  side  of  the  head,  and  the  under  parts  generally, 
white. 

The  White-headed  Woodpecker,  P.  albolarvatus,  Baird, 
of  Oregon  and  California,  is  about  nine  inches  long,  bluish- 
black,  the  head  and  a  patch  at  the  base  of  the  primaries 
white. 

The  Genus  Picoides  comprises  Woodpeckers  with  only 
three  toes  to  each  foot.  The  color  generally  is  black 


150  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

above  and  white  beneath  ;  the  crown  with  a  square 
yellow  patch,  a  white  stripe  behind  the  eye,  and  another 
beneath  it ;  the  quills  spotted  with  white  ;  and  the  sides 
banded  transversely  with  black. 

The  Black-backed  Three-toed  Woodpecker,  P.  arcticus, 
Gray,  of  Northern  North  America,  is  nine  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  five  inches,  and  is  distinguished  by 
its  black  back. 

The  Banded  Three-toed  Woodpecker,  P.  hirsutus,  Gray, 
of  the  Arctic  regions  of  North  America,  is  about  nine 
inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  three  fourths  inches,  and 
the  back  transversely  banded  with  white. 

The  Striped  Three-toe^  Woodpecker,  P.  dorsalis,  Baird, 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  nine  inches  long,  the  wing 
five  inches,  and  the  back  streaked  longitudinally  with 
white. 

The  Genus  Sphyrapicus  comprises  Woodpeckers  which 
have  the  lateral  ridge  of  the  bill  very  prominent,  but  ter- 
minating at  the  middle  of  the  commissure  ;  the  outer 
pair  of  toes  longest,  inner  posterior  one  very  short,  wings 
long  and  pointed,  fourth  quill  longest,  the  tail  feathers 
very  broad,  abruptly  acuminate,  and  with  a  long  point. 
The  colors  are  black  and  white,  with  a  central  yellow  line 
on  the  belly. 

The  Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker,  5.  varius,  Baird,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  eight 
and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  about  four  and  three 
quarters  inches,  and,  in  addition  to  characteristics  before 
mentioned,  it  has  the  crown  red  bordered  with  black, 
chin  and  throat  red,  a  black  patch  upon  the  breast,  and 
the  outer  and  inner  tail  feathers  varied  with  white. 

The  Red-breasted  Woodpecker,  5.  ruber,  Baird,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  less  than  nine  inches  long, 
the  wing  five  inches,  the  head,  neck,  and  breast  red. 

Williamson's  Woodpecker,  5.  Williamsonii,  Baird,  of 


SCANSORES:  PICIM:.  151 

the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  nine  inches  long,  the  wing  five 
inches  ;  the  head,  neck,  sides  of  the  breast,  and  body, 
black ;  a  stripe  behind  the  eye  white,  a  narrow  line  on 
the  chin  and  throat  red,  tail  feathers  wholly  black,  and 
the  back  scarcely  spotted. 

The  Brown-headed  Woodpecker,  S.  thyroideus,  Baird, 
of  Western  North  America,  is  about  nine  inches  long, 
the  wing  five  inches  ;  the  head  dark  ashy-brown,  the 
rest  of  the  body  encircled  by  transverse  bands  of  black 
and  brownish  white,  excepting  a  large,  round  black  patch 
upon  the  breast ;  and,  as  in  the  preceding  members  of  .the 
genus,  the  central  line  beneath  is  yellow. 

The  Genus  Hylotomus  is  represented  by  the  Black 
Woodcock,  H.  pileatus,  Baird,  of  North  America  gen- 
erally, which  is  about  eighteen  inches  long,  the  wing 
nine  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  general  color  dull  greenish- 
black,  a  narrow  white  streak  above  the  eye,  a  wider  one 
under  the  eye  and  along  the  sides  of  the  head  and  neck ; 
the  sides  of  the  breast,  under  wing  goverts,  chin,  and 
beneath  the  head,  white  tinged  with  yellow  ;  and  the 
entire  crown,  from  the  base  of  the  bill  to  a  well-developed 
occipital  crest,  scarlet.  This  bird  is  very  shy,  and,  when 
followed  by  the  hunter,  goes  rapidly  from  one  tree  to 
another,  alighting  upon  the  tallest,  and  generally  keeping 
on  the  side  farthest  from  the  pursuer.  Its  notes  are  very 
loud  and  clear. 

The  Genus  Centurus  comprises  Woodpeckers  which  are 
banded  above  transversely  with  black  and  white,  the  rump 
white,  the  head  and  under  parts  brown,  and  the  belly  with 
a  red  or  yellow  tinge. 

The  Red-bellied  Woodpecker,  C.  carolinus,  Bonap.,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  nine  and 
three  fourths  inches  long,  the  wing  five  inches,  and,  in 
addition  to  the  characteristics  named  above,  it  has  the 
crown  and  nape  red,  forehead  white  tinged  with  red,  and 
the  middle  of  the  belly  red. 


152 


VERTEBRATES  !   BIRDS. 


The  Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker,  C.  flaviventris,  Sw., 

of  the  Rio  Grande  region,  is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long, 

the  wing  five  inches,  with  a  square  red  patch  on  the  crown. 

The  Gila  Woodpecker,  C.  uropygialis,  Baird,  of  the 

Lower  Colorado  region,  is  nine  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Melanerpes  comprises  Woodpeckers  which 
have  the  back  black,  with  or  without  a  white  rump,  and 
variable  beneath,  but  without  transverse  bands. 

Fig.  96.  The   Red-headed   Woodpecker, 

M.  erythrocephalus,  Sw.,  of  North 
America,  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, is  nine  and  three  fourths 
inches  long,  the  wing  five  and  a 
half  inches,  and  the  head  and  neck 
all  round  crimson,  margined  with 
a  narrow  crescent  of  black  upon 
the  upper  part  of  the  breast ;  the 
back,  primaries,  and  tail,  black ;  the 
under  parts,  a  broad  band  across 
the  middle  of  the  wing,  and  the 
rump,  white.  It  excavates  a  hole 
for  its  nest  in  a  decaying  tree ;  eggs 
four  to  six,  pure  white. 

The  California  Woodpecker,  M.  formicivorus,  Bonap., 
of  California  and  eastward,  is  about  nine  inches  long,  the 
wing  five  inches ;  above  and  on  the  anterior  half  of  the 
body  glossy  black ;  the  top  of  the  head  and  a  short  occip- 
ital crest,  red ;  forehead,  rump,  and  belly,  white ;  the  sides 
of  head,  chin,  and  broad  pectoral  band,  black  ;  a  collar 
on  the  throat  passing  up  before  the  eyes  into  the  frontal 
band,  white  tinged  with  yellow. 

Lewis's  Woodpecker,  M.  torquattis,  Bonap.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  ten  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
six  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  color  dark  glossy  green  above  ; 
the  breast,  lower  part  of  the  neck,  and  a  narrow  collar 


Red-headed  Woodpecker, 
M.  erythrocephalus,  Sw. 


SCANSORES  :    PICID.E. 


153 


all  round,  grayish  white  ;  base  of  the  bill  and  sides  of  the 
head,  dark  crimson ;  belly  red,  streaked  with  whitish. 

The  Genus  Colaptes  comprises  Woodpeckers  with  a 
slender  bill,  large  feet,  and  long  tail. 

The  Golden-winged  Woodpecker,  C.  aurattis,  Sw.,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  birds  of  this  family.  It  is  twelve  and 
a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  six  inches,  the  top  of  the 
head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck  bluish  ash,  a  red 
crescent  on  the  nape,  the  other  upper  parts,  except  the 
pure  white  rump,  light  olivaceous-brown  with  transverse 
bands  of  black,  and  a  patch  upon  the  cheeks  black ;  the 
lower  parts  yellowish  white  tinged  with  brownish  and 
ornamented  with  circular  black  spots,  and  with  a  black 
crescent  upon  the  breast.  The  shafts  and  under  sur- 
faces of  the  wings  and  tail  feathers  are  gamboge-yellow. 
On  the  first  sunny  days  of  spring  the  Golden-winged 
Woodpeckers  appear  Fig.  97. 

on  the  tops  of  the 
decayed  trees,  and,  as 
they  hop  about,  strik- 
ing with  their  bills  here 
and  there,  make  the 
woods  resound  with 
their  loud,  merry  notes. 
Soon  they  are  paired, 
and  both  male  and  fe- 
male begin  to  excavate 
a  hole  in  a  tree  for  the 
nest.  The  female  lays 
four  to  six  beautiful 
white  eggs  for  each 
brood,  and  two  broods 

are  reared  in  a  Season.  Golden-winged  Woodpecker,  C.  auratus,  Sw. 

The  Red-shafted  Flicker,  C.  mexicanus,  Sw.,  of  Western 

7* 


154  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

North  America,  is  thirteen  inches  long,  the  wing  over  six 
and  a  half  inches,  the  shafts  and  under  surfaces  of  the 
wing  and  tail  feathers  orange-red,  a  red  patch  on  each 
side  of  the  cheek,  throat  and  stripe  beneath  the  eye 
bluish  ash,  and  the  back  glossed  with  purplish  brown. 
The  female  has  no  red  on  the  cheek. 

C.  hybridus,  Baird,  is  the  name  given  to  woodpeckers 
from  the  Upper  Missouri,  which  combine  characteristics 
common  to  both  the  preceding  species. 

SUB-SECTION    III. 

THE  ORDER   OF   INSESSORES,   OR  PERCHERS. 

THE  Order  of  Insessores  embraces  far  more  species 
than  any  other  in  the  whole  class  of  birds,  and  those 
which  in  many  cases  seem  widely  different  from  one 
another  ;  but  they  agree  in  many  important  respects, 
especially  in  their  feet,  which  have  three  toes  directed 
forward  and  one  behind,  the  latter  being  on  the  same 
level  with  the  others.  This  Order  naturally  divides  into 
three  groups,  which  may  be  called  Sub-Orders,  —  Stri- 
sores,  Clamatores,  and  Oscines. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Strisores  comprises  birds  which 
have  the  hind  toe  versatile,  or  capable  of  being  turned 
more  or  less  laterally  forward,  thus  making  the  bird 
appear  to  have  four  toes  in  front.  They  have  ten  pri- 
maries, and  the  tail  feathers  are  never  more  than  ten. 
The  Strisores  comprise  three  families,  —  Trochilidae  or 
Humming-Bird  Family,  Cypselidae  or  Swift  Family,  Ca- 
primulgidae  or  Goat-sucker  Family. 

TROCHILIM:,  OR  HUMMING-BIRD  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  birds  of  the  smallest  size,  and  of  the  most 
gorgeous  plumage  to  be  found  in  the  feathered  race. 
The  beauty  and  splendor  of  their  colors  are  beyond 
description.  One  might  as  well  attempt  to  describe  the 


INSESSORES:  TROCHILHXE.  155 

rainbow,  as  the  hues  of  emerald,  and  ruby,  and  amethyst, 
and  topaz,  and  burnished  gold,  which  flash  from  these 
beautiful  forms  of  life,  as  they  glance  among  the  foliage, 
or  dart  from  flower  to  flower  seeking  their  accustomed 
food.  They  belong  exclusively  to  the  continent  and 
islands  of  America,  and  are  the  most  numerous  in  the 
hot  regions.  Some  species  range  north  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  south  to  Patagonia ;  and  from  the  level  of 
the  sea  to  the  cold  heights  of  the  Andes.  The  feet  of 
humming-birds  are  very  small,  the  wings  very  long  and 
narrow,  and  the  tail  broad.  Everything  in  their  organiza- 
tion contributes  to  give  them  great^power  and  rapidity 
of  flight ;,.  and  they  are  able  to  balance  themselves  in  the 
air,  or  beside  a  flower,  with  a  facility  that  is  truly  won- 
derful, and  which  finds  a  parallel  only  among  some  of 
the  insect  tribes.  The  bill  is  awl-shaped,  thin,  sharp- 
pointed,  straight,  or  curved ;  in  some  cases  as  long  as 
the"  head,  and  in  others  much  longer.  The  mandibles 
are  excavated  to  the  tip  for  a  lodgment  of  the  tongue, 
and  form  a  tube  by  the  close  fitting  of  rig.  9s. 

their  cutting  edges.    The  tongue,  which 
is  split  almost  to  its  base,  forming  two 
hollow  threads,  is  protruded  at  will,  like 
that  of  the  woodpeckers,  and   by  the        Humming-Bird, 
same  sort  of  mechanism.    The  food  con-       T- colitbris*  L!nn- 
sists  of  insects  and  honey,  which  are  secured  by  extend- 
ing the  tongue  into  flowers  without  opening  very  wide 
the  bill.     About  four  hundred  species  are  known ;  and 
six  or  more  are  found  in  North  America. 

The  Black-throated 'Humming-Bird,  Lampornis  mango, 
Sw.,  of  South  America  and  perhaps  northward  to  Florida, 
is  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  two  and  six 
tenths  inches. 

The  Ruby-throated  Humming  Bird,  Trochilus  cohibris, 
Linn.,  of  North  America  to  Brazil,  is  three  and  a  quarter 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  one  inch  and  six  tenths. 


Fig.  98. 

V 


156  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The    Black-chinned     Humming-Bird,     T.    Alexandri, 
Fig.  99.  Bourc.  &  Muls.,  of  California  and 

southward,  is  three  inches  and  three 
tenths  long,  and  the  wing  one  inch 
and  seven  tenths. 

The  Red-backed  Humming-Bird, 
Selasphorus  rufus,  Sw.,  of  Western 

Humming-Bird's  nest,         North  America,  is  three  and  a  half 
T.  coiubris,  Linn.  inches  long,  and  the  wing  over  one 

inch  and  a  half. 

The  Broad-tailed  Humming-Bird,  5.  platycercw,  Gould, 
of  Mexico  and  Texas,  is  three  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  a  little  less  than  two  inches. 

The  Anna  Humming-Bird,  Atthis  anna,  Reichenb.,  of 
California,  is  three  and  six  tenths  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  two  inches. 

The  Ruffed  Humming-Bird,  A.  costce,  Reichenb.,  of 
Southern  California,  is  three  and  two  tenths  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  one  inch  and  three  fourths. 

CYPSELID^E,  OR  SWIFT  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises small,  dull-colored  birds,  which  have  the  general 
appearance  of  swallows,  but  differ  from  the  latter  in 
many  essential  characteristics.  The  Swifts  have  a  much 
smaller  and  shorter  bill,  with  the  edges  greatly  inflected ; 
the  nostrils  are  superior  instead  of  lateral,  and  without 
bristles  ;  the  wing  more  falcate,  and  with  ten  primaries 
instead  of  nine  ;  the  tail  with  ten  feathers  instead  of 
twelve  ;  the  feet  are  weaker,  the  hind  toe  more  or  less 
versatile,  and  the  anterior  toes  usually  lack  the  normal 
number  of  joints  ;  and  there  are  peculiarities  in  their 
vocal  organs. 

The  Genus  Panyptila  comprises  Swifts  which  have  the 
legs  thick,  hind  toe  directed  laterally,  legs  feathered  to 
the  claws,  second  primary  longest,  and  tail  forked. 

The  White-throated  Swift,  P.  meldnoleuca,  Baird,  of 


INSESSORES  :    CYPSELHXE.  1 57 

New  Mexico,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
five  inches. 

The  Genus  Nephcecetes  comprises  Swifts  with  naked, 
slender  legs,  forked  tail,  and  first  primary  longest. 

The  Northern  Swift,  N.  niger,  Baird,  of  Northwestern 
America  to  the  West  Indies,  is  six  and  three  quarters 
inches  long,  with  the  wing  of  the  same  length.  The 
general  color  is  dark  sooty-brown,  with  a  greenish  gloss. 

The  Genus  Chcetura  is  characterized  by  the  even  tail 
and  stiffened  shafts  projecting  as  spinous  points. 

The  Chimney  Swallow,  C.  pelasgia,  Steph.,  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  five  and  a  quar- 
ter inches  long,  the  wing  over  five  inches. 

The  Oregon  Swift,  C.  Vauxii,  De  Kay,  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  is  less  than  five  inches  long,  and  the  wing  four  and 
three  fourths  inches. 

CAPRIMULGID.E,  OR  GOAT-SUCKER  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  birds  with  a  short  triangular  bill,  and 
soft,  lax,  owl-like  plumage.  They  feed  upon  insects,  which 
they  capture  while  upon  the  wing. 

The  Genus  Antrostomus  is  characterized  by  a  bill  with 
conspicuous  bristles,  rounded  wings,  broad  graduated  tail, 
and  very  lax  plumage. 

Chuck-will's  Widow,  A.  carolinensis,  of  the  South  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  States,  is  twelve  inches  long,  the  wing 
eight  and  a  half  inches,  the  bristles  of  the  bill  with  lat- 
eral filaments  ;  general  color  pale  rufous,  top  of  the  head 
reddish-brown  streaked  with  black,  and  the  terminal  two 
thirds  of  the  tail,  except  the  four  central  feathers,  ru- 
fous-white. The  female  is  without  the  white  upon  the 
tail.  In  early  spring  the  forests  echo  with  the  notes 
of  this  interesting  bird. 

The  Whippoorwill,  A.  vociferus,  Bonap.,  of  Eastern 
United  States  to  the  Central  Plains,  is  ten  inches  long, 
the  wing  six  and  a  half  inches,  the  bristles  of  the  bill 


158  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

Fig.  ioo.  without    lateral 

filaments.  The 
general  color  is 
similar  to  that 
of  the  preced- 
ing, the  top  of 
the  head  ashy 
gray,  longitudi- 

Whippoorwill,  A .  vociferus,  Bonap.  ^^        streake(} 

with  black.  Its  notes  are  three,  and  have  a  fancied  re- 
semblance to  the  syllables  whip-poor-will,  and  hence  its 
name.  It  begins  its  song  soon  after  sunset,  and  continues 
till  late  at  night ;  then  remains  silent  till  near  the  dawn, 
when  it  resumes  and  continues  till  sunrise.  During  the 
day  the  Whippoorwill  sleeps  upon  the  ground,  or  on  fallen 
trunks  of  trees,  or  on  low  branches,  and  may  often  be  ap- 
proached to  within  a  few  feet  before  it  flies.  It  is  said 
that  it  always  sits  with  its  body  parallel  to  the  branch  on 
which  it  alights,  and  never  across  it.  Its  eggs  are  always 
two,  short  elliptical,  much  rounded,  and  nearly  equal  at 
both  ends ;  the  color  greenish  white,  spotted  and  blotched 
with  bluish  gray  and  light  brown.  These  are  laid  in 
May,  on  the  bare  ground  or  on  dry  leaves,  and  in  the 
most  secluded  parts  of  the  thickets. 

Nuttall's  Whippoorwill,  A.  Ntittalli,  Cass.,  of  the  high 
central  plains  and  westward  to  the  Pacific  coast,  is  eight 
inches  long,  the  wing  five  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Chordeiles  has  the  bill  without  bristles,  or 
with  very  feeble  ones,  the  wings  very  long  and  pointed, 
tail  narrow,  forked,  and  plumage  rather  compact. 

The  Night-Hawk,  C.  popetue,  Baird,  of  North  America 
generally,  is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
over  eight  inches,  and  is  so  well  known  as  to  require  no 
further  description  here.  Night-Hawks  are  not  strictly 
nocturnal,  as  the  name  implies ;  but  are  often  upon  the 


INSESSORES  :    CAPRIMULGIDjE. 


159 


Night-Hawk,  C.  popetue,  Baird. 


wing  throughout  the  entire  day, 
especially  if  it  be  cloudy.  They 
are  generally  most  active  just 
before  night,  and,  retire  to  rest 
at  dark.  Their  loud,  squeaking 
notes  are  familiar  to  all.  The 
singular  loud  and  half-boom- 
ing sound  which  they  make  in 
plunging  from  a  great  height 
is  said  to  be  produced  by  the 
concussion  caused  by  the  new 
position  of  the  wings  at  the 
moment  when  the  bird  passes 
the  centre  of  its  plunge  and 
commences  the  ascent.  The 
Night-Hawk  makes  no  nest, 
but  deposits  its  two  oval,  freckled  eggs  on  the  bare 
ground,  or  on  a  flat  rock,  in  fields  or  in  very  open  woods. 

Some  persons  suppose  that  the  Night-Hawk  and  Whip- 
poorwill  are  identical,  but  they  do  not  even  belong  to 
the  same  genus.  The  Night-Hawk  has  the  bristles  of 
the  bill  hardly  appreciable,  wings  sharp-pointed,  longer 
than  the  tail,  which  is  rather  narrow,  and  forked  or  emar- 
ginate.  The  Whippoorwill  has  the  mouth  margined  by 
long  stiff  bristles,  the  wings  short,  not  reaching  the  end 
of  the  tail,  which  is  short  and  rounded ;  and  they  differ 
in  their  colors  and  markings. 

The  Western  Night-Hawk,  C.  Henryi,  Cass.,  of  New 
Mexico,  and  the  Texas  Night-Hawk,  C.  Texensis,  Law- 
rence, are  other  North  American  species. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Clamatores  comprises  birds  which 
have  three  toes  before  and  one  behind,  and  the  latter  not 
versatile  ;  the  primaries  ten,  the  first  nearly  as  long  as 
the  second ;  and  the  tail  feathers  usually  twelve.  It  com- 
prises three  Families,  —  Alcedinidae  or  Kingfisher  Fam- 


i6o 


VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 


Fig.  102. 


ily,  Pronitidse  or  Saw-bill  Family,  and  Colopteridae  or 
Flycatcher  Family. 

ALCEDINIDJE,  OR  KINGFISHER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  birds  with  a  large  head,  a  long,  straight,  sub- 
pyramidal  bill,  very  small  tongue,  short  wings,  small  legs, 
very  short  tarsi,  and  the  outer  and  middle  toes  united  half 
their  length. 

The  Genus  Ceryle  comprises  two  species. 

The  Belted  King- 
fisher, Ceryle  alcyon, 
Boie,  of  the  entire  con- 
tinent of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  about  thirteen 
inches  long,  the  wing 
six  inches,  the  head 
with  a  long  crest ;  the 
color  above,  blue ;  be- 
neath, and  a  spot  ante- 
rior to  the  eye,  white ; 
a  band  across  the 
breast,  and  the  sides 
of  the  body,  like  the 
back ;  the  primaries 
i  white  on  their  basal 

Belted  Kingfisher,  Ceryle  alcyon,  Boie.  j^jf-    and   the  tail  with 

transverse  bands  and  spots  of  white.  Ponds  and  slow 
streams  are  its  favorite  resorts,  near  which  it  sits  on  a 
branch  or  decayed  limb,  and  watches  for  fish,  which  con- 
stitutes its  food.  At  the  proper  moment  it  plunges  head- 
long into  the  water,  seizes  the  fish,  flies  to  the  nearest 
tree,  and  swallows  its  victim  in  a  moment,  and  is  imme- 
diately on  the  watch  for  another.  Its  notes  are  harsh. 
The  nest  is  made  in  a  horizontal  hole  excavated  in  a  high 
bank  of  a  stream,  by  the  mutual  labor  of  the  male  and 
female,  to  the  depth  of  three  to  six  feet ;  eggs  six,  pure 
white. 


INSESSORES  I   PRONITID.E.  l6l 

The  Texas  Kingfisher,  C.  americana,  Boie,  is  much 
smaller,  being  only  eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  three 
and  a  quarter  inches ;  and  the  head  is  only  slightly  crested. 
The  upper  parts  and  a  pectoral  and  abdominal  band  of 
blotches,  and  a  line  on  each  side  of  the  thorax,  are  glossy 
green ;  the  under  parts  generally,  a  collar  on  the  back  of 
the  neck,  and  a  double  series  of  spots  on  the  quills,  white. 

PRONITID^E,  OR  SAW-BILL  FAMILY.— This  Family  com- 
prises birds  with  the  bill  as  long  as  the  head,  gently  de- 
curved  near  the  tip,  but  not  hooked,  and  the  cutting  edges 
dentated  ;  the  tarsi  rather  long,  feet  large,  the  middle  and 
outer  toes  connected  for  more  than  half  their  length. 
Three  genera  are  known,  only  one  of  which  is  repre- 
sented in  North  America. 

The  Genus  Momotus  has  the  bill  as  long  as  the  head, 
both  mandibles  dentated,  and  the  tail  long. 

The  Saw-Bill,  M.  c&ruliceps,  Gould,  of  Mexico,  is  fifteen 
inches  long,  the  wing  five  and  a  half,  the  general  color 
yellowish-green,  the  top  of  the  head  and  occipital  crest 
bright  blue  encircled  with  black. 

COLOPTERIM:,  OR  FLYCATCHER  FAMILY. — This  Family 
comprises  small  birds  which  connect  the  non-melodi- 
ous birds  with  the  Oscines,  to  be  noticed  hereafter.  The 
bill  in  most  cases  is  bent  abruptly  down  at  the  tip,  before 
which  is  a  slight  notch ;  the  sides  of  the  mouth  are  pro- 
vided with  stiff  bristles  ;  the  wings  of  moderate  length, 
the  first  primary  always  more  than  half  the  length  of  the 
second,  usually  nearly  as  long  as  the  latter.  This  large 
family  is  represented  in  North  America  by  about  thirty 
species. 

The  Genus  Pachyrhamphus  has  the  Rose-throated  Fly- 
catcher, P.  aglaicz,  Lafresn.,  of  Mexico  to  the  Rio  Grande, 
as  its  only  representative  in  North  America.  It  is  seven 
and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  three  and  three 
fourths  inches. 


1 62  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Milvtilus  is  characterized  by  a  bill  shorter 
than  the  head,  tail  twice  as  long  as  the  wing  and  exces- 
sively forked. 

The  Fork-tailed  Flycatcher,  M.  tyrannus,  Bonap.,  of 
South  America  and  accidental  in  the  United  States,  is 
fourteen  inches  long,  wing  four  and  three  fourths  inches, 
the  top  and  sides  of  the  head  glossy-black,  the  rump, 
wings,  and  tail  almost  black,  the  rest  of  the  upper  parts 
ash-gray,  the  under  parts  white,  and  the  crown  with  a 
concealed  patch  of  yellow. 

The  Scissor-tail,  M.  forficatus,  Sw.,  of  Texas  to  Mexico, 
is  thirteen  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  three  fourths 
inches,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  habit  of  closing  and 
opening  the  long  feathers  of  the  tail,  like  the  blades  of  a 
pair  of  scissors. 

The  Genus  Tyranmts  has  the  tail  rather  shorter  than 
the  wings,  and  nearly  even  or  only  moderately  forked, 
the  wings  long  and  pointed,  the  outer  primaries  attenu- 
ated, and  the  head  with  a  concealed  patch  of  red. 
The  Kingbird  or  Bee  Martin,   T.  carolinensis,  Baird, 

of  North  America  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  is 
eight  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  less  than 
five  inches,  the  color  above 
dark  bluish-ash,  the  lower 
parts  white,  the  sides  of 
the  throat  and  across  the 
breast  tinged  with  pale  blu- 
ish-ash, the  top  and  sides 
of  the  head  bluish  black, 

Kingbird,  T.  carolinensis,  Baird.  and      the      Concealed      CrCSt 

vermilion  in  the  centre,  white  behind,  and  before  .par- 
tially mixed  with  orange.  Its  favorite  resorts  are  open 
fields  or  orchards.  Perched  upon  a  stake  or  tall  weed 


INSESSORES:    COLOPTERID^E.  163 

or  a  low  tree,  it  watches  for  insects,  which  it  darts  upon 
with  unerring  aim.  It  is  very  courageous,  never  hesitat- 
ing to  attack  hawks,  crows,  and  other  large  birds  which 
it  dislikes. 

The  Gray  Kingbird,  T.  dominicensis,  Rich.,  of  the  West 
Indies  and  accidental  in  the  Southern  States,  is  eight 
inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  four  and  three  fourths 
inches. 

The  Arkansas  Flycatcher,  T.  verticalis,  Say,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  eight  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
wing  four  and  a  half  inches,  the  general  color  ashy  above, 
yellow  beneath,  tail  nearly  black,  wings  brown,  pectoral 
band  pale  ashy,  and  the  crest  vermilion  in  the  centre, 
and  yellowish  before  and  behind. 

Cassin's  Flycatcher,  T.  vociferans,  Sw.,  of  Mexico  and 
Texas,  is  nearly  nine  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  and 
a  quarter  inches. 

Couch's  Flycatcher,  T.  Couchii,  Baird,  of  Mexico,  is 
nine  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  inches. 

The  Genus  Myiarchus  has  the  bill  wide  at  base  ;  tarsus 
equal  to,  or  not  longer  than,  the  middle  toe ;  tail  broad, 
long,  even,  or  slightly  rounded,  and  about  equal  to  the 
wings,  which  scarcely  reach  to  the  middle  of  the  tail ; 
the  head  with  elongated  distinct  feathers  The  general 
color  above  brownish  olive,  the  throat  ash,  and  the  belly 
yellow. 

The  Great-crested  Flycatcher,  M.  crinitus,  Cab.,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  eight  and  three 
fourths  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  a  quarter  inches, 
the  general  color  dull  greenish-olive  above,  sides  of  the 
head  as  high  as  the  upper  eyelid,  and  sides  of  the  neck, 
throat,  and  fore  part  of  the  breast,  bluish  ashy ;  the  other 
under  parts  bright  sulphur-yellow  ;  head  with  a  depressed 
crest.  This  species  delights  in  forests.  Its  flight  is 
rapid  and  powerful.  Seeing  an  insect,  it  sweeps  down- 


164  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

ward,  secures  it,  returns  to  the  tree,  swallows  its  victim, 
erects  its  crest,  and  immediately  utters  its  harsh,  squeak- 
ing note. 

The  Ash-throated  Flycatcher,  M.  mexicanus,  Baird,  of 
California  to  Texas,  closely  resembles  the  preceding,  but 
the  bill  is  narrower  and  blacker,  tarsi  longer,  wings  less 
pointed,  the  throat  and  fore  part  of  the  breast  white,  and 
the  sulphur-yellow  of  the  under  parts  pale. 

Cooper's  Flycatcher,  M.  Cooperi,  Baird,  and  Lawrence's 
Flycatcher,  M.  Lawrencii,  Baird,  of  Mexico,  are  other 
North  American  species. 

The  Genus  Sayornis  is  characterized  by  a  depressed, 
moderate  crest,  rather  narrow  bill,  tail  long,  broad,  and 
slightly  forked,  and  equal  to  the  wings,  which  reach  to 
the  middle  of  the  tail. 

The  Black  Flycatcher,  5.  nigricans,  Bonap.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  about  seven  inches  long,  the  wing 
about  three  and  a  half  inches,  the  general  color  sooty- 
brown,  under  parts  and  edge  of  the  tail  white. 

The  Pewee  or  Phcebe  Bird,  S.fuscus,  Baird,  of  Eastern 
North  America,  is  seven  inches  long,  the  wing  less  than 
three  and  a  half  inches,  the  general  color  above  brownish 
olive,  crown  darker,  the  under  parts  and  edge  of  the  tail 
yellowish.  The  Pewee  lingers  around  bridges,  old  mills, 
and  caves,  in  some  secure  part  of  which  it  makes  its  nest 
of  mud,  grass,  and  moss,  with  a  soft  lining  within  to  re- 
ceive the  pure  white  eggs  with  reddish  spots  near  their 
larger  end. 

Say's  Flycatcher,  5.  Sayus,  Baird,  of  Western  North 
America,  is  seven  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  a  third 
inches,  the  general  color  grayish  brown,  reddish  cinna- 
mon beneath. 

The  Genus  Contopus  is  characterized  by  very  short, 
stout  tarsi,  wings  very  long  and  much  pointed,  and 
reaching  beyond  the  middle  of  the  tail,  the  head  moder- 


INSESSORES:    COLOPTERID^E.  1 65 

ately  crested,  the  general  color  olive  above,  pale  yellowish 
beneath,  with  a  darker  patch  on  the  sides  of  the  breast. 

The  Olive-sided  Flycatcher,  C.  borealis,  Baird,  of  Green- 
land and  rare  upon  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of 
North  America,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
less  than  four  and  a  half  inches  ;  in  addition  to  the  above- 
mentio'ned  characteristics,  it  has  a  silky  white  tuft  on 
each  side  of  the  rump. 

The  Short-legged  Pewee,  C.  Richardsonii,  Baird,  of 
North  America,  is  over  six  inches  long,  the  wing  over 
three  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Wood  Pewee,  C.  virens,  Cab.,  of  Eastern  North 
America  to  the  high  central  plains,  is  six  and  a  quarter 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  upper 
parts,  side  of  the  head,  neck,  and  breast,  dark  olivaceous- 
brown  ;  the  lower  parts  pale  yellowish  tinged  with  ash 
across  the  breast ;  a  ring  around  the  eye,  and  two  narrow 
bands  across  the  wing,  white.  The  Wood  Pewee  loves 
the  dark,  quiet  retreats  of  the  forest.  Here,  sitting  on  a 
dry  branch,  it  may  always  be  found  in  summer  and  early 
autumn,  watching  for  insects,  and,  with  its  wings  quiver- 
ing, uttering  its  low,  melancholy  notes.  It  makes  its  nest 
on  a  horizontal  branch,  constructing  it  of  lichens  and 
mosses  without,  and  of  fine  grasses  and  hairs  within. 
The  eggs  are  four  or  five,  light  yellowish,  and  spotted 
with  reddish  on  the  larger  end. 

The  Genus  Empidonax  is  characterized  by  long  tarsi,  tail 
a  little  shorter  than  the  wings,  head  moderately  crested, 
the  general  color  olivaceous  above,  yellowish  beneath. 

Traill's  Flycatcher,  E.  Traillii,  Baird,  of  the  Eastern 
United  States  to  Mexico,  is  six  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  nine  tenths  inches. 

The  Little  Flycatcher,  E.  pusillus,  Cab.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  eight  tenths  inches.  A. 


1 66  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Least  Flycatcher,  E.  minimus,  Baird,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri  plains,  is  five  inches  long,  the 
wing  two  inches  and  six  tenths. 

The  Small  Green-crested  Flycatcher,  E.  acadicus,  Baird, 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  five  inches 
and  six  tenths  long,  and  the  wing  three  inches  ;  the  upper 
parts,  with  sides  of  the  head  and  neck,  olive  green  ;  throat 
and  middle  of  the  belly,  white  ;  the  other  under  parts  pale 
greenish-yellow. 

The  Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher,  E.  flaviventris,  Baird, 
of  North  America,  is  over  five  inches  long,  the  wing  less 
than  three  inches ;  and  distinguished  by  the  bright  sul- 
phur-yellow of  the  under  parts. 

Hammond's  Flycatcher,  E.  Hammondii,  Baird,  of  the 
vicinity  of  Fort  Tejon,  is  five  inches  and  a  half  long,  the 
wing  less  than  three  inches ;  and  at  once  distinguished 
by  its  very  slender  bill. 

Wright's  Flycatcher,  E.  obscurus,  Baird,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  is  five  and  three,  fourths  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  two  and  three  fourths. 

The  Genus  Pyrocephalus  comprises  the  Red  Flycatcher, 
P.  rubincus,  Gray,  of  the  Rio  Grande  region,  which  is 
five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  a  quarter 
inches,  the  head  fully  crested,  crown  and  whole  under 
parts  bright  carmine ;  the  remaining  upper  parts  dark 
brown. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Oscines  comprises  the  true  singing- 
birds,  such  as  have  the  larynx  provided  with  five  pairs  of 
peculiar  muscles,  which  are  used  in  the  production  of 
song.  North  America  has  twelve  families,  —  Turdidae 
or  Thrush  Family,  Sylvicolidae  or  Warbler  Family,  Hi- 
rundinidae  or  Swallow  Family,  Bombycillidae  or  Waxwing 
Family,  Lanidae  or  Shrike  Family,  Liotrichidae  or  Mock- 
ing-Bird  Family,  Certhiadae  or  Creeper  Family,  Paridae 
or  Titmouse  Family,  Alaudidae  or  Lark  Family,  Fringil- 


INSESSORES  I   TURDIDjE.  l6/ 

lidae  or  Finch  Family,  Icteridae  or  Blackbird  Family,  and 
Corvidae  or  Crow  Family. 

TURDID^E,  OR  THRUSH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  with  the  bill  notched  near  the  tip,  wings 
rather  long, .  primaries  ten,  of  which  the  first  is  very 
short,  the  second  nearly  equal  to  the  longest ;  tarsi  usu- 
ally rather  long,  and  mainly  without  scutellae,  the  lateral 
toes  about  equal,  and  the  basal  joint  of  the  middle  toe 
united  by  its  basal  two-thirds  to  the  outer,  and  by  its 
basal  half  to  the  inner  toe. 

The  Genus  Turdus  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head 
and  stout,  culmen  gently  curved  from  the  base,  tarsi 
longer  than  the  middle  toe,  lateral  toes  nearly  equal,  but 
the  outer  one  longer,  the  wings  pointed  and  longer  than 
the  tail,  which  is  nearly  even,  or  slightly  emarginate. 

The  Wood  Thrush,  T.  mustelinus,  Gm.,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri  and  southward  to  Guatemala, 
is  eight  and  one  tenth  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  a 
quarter  inches ;  the  color  above  clear  cinnamon-brown, 
the  top  of  the  head  more  rufous,  and  more  olivaceous  on 
the  rump  and  tail ;  the  un-  Fig.  104. 

der  parts  are  clear  white, 
sometimes  tinged  with  buff 
before,  and  thickly  marked 
with  sub-triangular  sharp- 
ly-defined spots  of  black- 
ish. The  sides  of  the  head 
are  dark  brown  streaked 
with  white,  the  legs  yel- 
low, bill  brOWn  except  itS  Wood  Thrush,  T.  mustelinus,  Gm. 

yellow  base  beneath.  The  nest  is  built  in  a  laurel,  or 
other  low  shrub,  and  composed  of  leaves,  grass,  and  mud, 
lined  with  fibrous  roots ;  eggs  four  to  five,  of  a  uniform 
light  blue.  ^The  Wood  Thrush  delights  in  deep  shady 
glens  where  there  is  a  brook  or  little  stream,  and  in  thick 


1 68  VERTEBRATES  :   BIRDS. 

dark  woods.  Its  soft,  liquid,  half-plaintive  notes  excel 
in  sweetness  those  of  any  other  American  bird,  and 
can  only  be  approximated,  never  equalled,  by  those  of 
the  flute  in  the  hands  of  a  master.  They  are  few  in 
number,  but  possess  a  charm  beyond  description,  touch- 
ing the  heart  of  every  cultivated  listener,  and  calling 
forth  all  the  nobler  feelings  of  our  nature.  Says  Au- 
dubon,  "  How  often,  as  the  first  glimpses  of  morning 
gleamed  doubtfully  amongst  the  dusky  masses  of  the 
forest-trees,  has  there  come  upon  my  ear  the  delightful 
music  of  this  harbinger  of  day,  and  how  fervently  on 
such  occasions  have  I  blessed  the  Being  who  formed  the 
Wood  Thrush,  and  placed  it  in  those  solitary  forests,  as 
if  to  console  me  amidst  my  privations,  to  cheer  my  de- 
pressed mind,  and  to  make  me  feel,  as  I  did,  that  man 
never  ought  to  despair  !  " 

The  Hermit  Thrush,  T.  Pallasi,  Cab.,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  over  three  and  three  quarters  inches  ;  the 
color  above  light  olive-brown,  passing  into  rufous  on  the 
rump,  upper  tail  coverts,  and  tail,  and  with  less  intensity 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  wings.  The  under  parts 
white,  scarcely  tinged  with  buff  across  the  fore  part  of 
the  breast ;  the  sides  of  the  throat  and  the  fore  part  of 
the  breast  with  rather  sharply  defined  subtriangular  spots 
of  dark  olive-brown,  and  the  sides  of  the  breast  with  less 
distinct  and  paler  spots  of  the  same  ;  and  there  is  a 
whitish  ring  around  the  eye.  Its  song,  as  I  have  learned 
since  the  above  was  in  type,  rivals  even  that  of  the  Wood 
Thrush. 

The  Dwarf  Thrush,  T.  nanns,  Aud.,  of  the  Pacific  coast 
of  North  America,  is  very  similar  to  T.  Pallasi,  but  smaller, 
being  only  six  and  a  half  inches  long,  with  the  wing  three 
and  a  half  inches,  and  the  white  of  the  under  parts  is 
purer,  and  the  sides  are  glossed  with  bluish  ash  instead 


INSESSORES:   TURDI 

of  yellowish   olive-brown,   and   the 
purple. 

Wilson's  Thrush,  T.  fuscescens,  Steph( 
America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  four  and  a  quarter  inches ;  the  color  above, 
and  on  the  sides  of  the  head  and  neck,  nearly  uniform 
light  reddish-brown  ;  beneath,  white,  the  fore  part  of  the 
breast  and  throat  tinged  with  pale  brownish-yellow  ;  and 
the  sides  of  the  throat  and  the  fore  part  of  the  breast  are 
marked  with  small  obscurely  defined  triangular  spots  of 
light  brownish. 

The  Oregon  Thrush,  T.  ustulatus,  Nutt,  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  three  and 
three  fourths  inches. 

The  Olive-backed  Thrush,  T.  Swainsonii,  Cab.,  of  East- 
ern North  America,  Greenland,  and  southward  to  Peru, 
and  accidental  in  Europe  and  Siberia,  is  seven  inches 
long,  the  wing  over  four  inches ;  the  color  of  the  upper 
parts  uniform  olivaceous,  with  a  decided  shade  of  green  ; 
the  fore  part  of  the  breast  and  throat  pale  brownish-yel- 
low, and  the  rest  of  the  lower  parts  white ;  the  sides  of 
the  throat  and  fore  part  of  the  breast  with  somewhat 
rounded  spots  of  well-defined  brown. 

The  Gray-cheeked  Thrush,  T.  aides,  Baird,  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi region  to  the  Missouri,  is  nearly  eight  inches  long, 
the  wing  about  four  and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the  color  above 
dark  olive-green,  sides  of  the  head  ash-gray ;  the  under 
parts  white  ;  the  sides  of  the  throat,  and  the  breast,  with 
arrow-shaped  spots  of  dark  plumbeous-brown. 

The  Common  Robin,  T.  migratorius,  Linn.,  of  all  North 
America  to  Mexico,  is  nine  and  three  fourths  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  nearly  five  and  a  half  inches ;  and  is  so 
well  known  that  it  needs  no  further  description.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  common  and  most  interesting  birds,  com- 
ing to  the  temperate  districts  early  in  the  spring,  and 


170  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

remaining  late  in  the  autumn.  Some  remain  through 
the  whole  winter  even  in  New  England,  but  keep  in 
the  thick  swamps  and  on  the  sunny  sides  of  woods.  The 
song  of  the  Robin  at  the  close  of  the  early  days  of  spring 
is  among  the  sweetest  that  issues  from  our  groves  and 
orchards. 

The  Varied  Thrush,  T.  ncevius,  Gm.,  of  Western  North 
America,  and  accidental  on  Long  Island  and  near  Bos- 
ton, is  nine  and  three  fourths  inches  long,  the  wing  five 
inches,  and  much  resembles  T.  migratorius. 

The  Misle  Thrush,  T.  viscivorus,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  is 
brown  above,  the  under  parts  of  the  wings  white,  and 
breast  spotted.  It  is  extremely  fond  of  the  mistletoe. 

The  Genus  Saxicola  comprises  the  Stone-Chats,  small 
birds  common  in  the  Old  World,  and  one  species  inhabits 
Greenland  and  is  accidental  in  the  northern  portions  of 
North  America. 

The  Genus  Erythaca  comprises  the  Robin  Redbreast, 
E.  rubecula,  Sw.,  Motacilla  rubeciila,  Linn.,  of  Europe, 
which  is  familiar  to  every  one,  by  name.  This  pretty 
little  bird  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  brownish  gray 
above,  the  throat  and  breast  red,  and  belly  white.  It  de- 
lights in  the  presence  of  man,  and  often  enters  his  dwell- 
ing. In  the  cold  weather  it  sometimes  takes  up  its  abode 
in  houses,  and,  selecting  a  perch,  warbles  its  song  when 
the  day  is  clear  or  the  fire  burns  brightly. 

The  Genus  Sialia  is  characterized  by  a  short,  stout  bill 
slightly  notched  at  the  tip,  wings  much  longer  than  the 
tail,  and  the  claws  considerably  curved. 

The  Blue-Bird,  5.  sialis,  Baird,  of  North  America  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  six  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  four  inches  ;  the  color  above  uniform 
azure-blue  ;  beneath  reddish-brown,  the  abdomen  and 
under  tail  coverts  white.  The  female  has  the  blue  lighter, 
and  tinged  with  brown  on  the  head  and  back.  The  Blue- 


INSESSORES:    TURDID.E.  I /I 

Bird  makes  its  nest  in  a  hollow  apple-tree  or  post,  and 
lays  four  to  six  pale  blue  eggs.  Two  or  three  broods  are 
raised  in  a  season,  and  generally  from  one  nest.  While 
the  female'  is  sitting  on  the  second  set  of  eggs,  the  male 
takes  charge  of  the  first  brood. 

The  Western  Blue-Bird,  5.  mexicana,  Sw.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  six  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
four  and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the  bill  more  slender,  wings 
longer,  and  blue  more  intense,  than  in  the  preceding. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Blue-Bird,  5.  arctica,  Sw.,  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
wing  over  four  and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the  color  azure- 
blue  ;  the  belly  and  under  tail  coverts  white. 

The  Genus  Regulus  has  the  bill  slender,  much  shorter 
than  the  head,  depressed  at  the  base,  moderately  notched 
at  the  tip  ;  the  rictus  well  provided  with  bristles,  and 
the  nostril  covered  by  a  single  bristly  feather  projecting 
forwards.  The  birds  of  this  genus  are  very  small,  olive 
green  above,  and  whitish  beneath. 

The  Ruby-crowned  Wren,  R.  calm-  Fig  ios 

dula,  Licht,  of  North  America,  is  four 
and  a  half  inches  long,  and  at  once  dis- 
tinguished by  the  crown,  which  has  a 
large  concealed  patch  of  scarlet  feathers 
which  are  white  at  the  base.  Its  song 
is  clear,  varied,  and  harmonious,  charm-  Ruby-downed  wren, 
ing  all  who  hear  it. 

The  Golden-crested  Wren,  R.  satrapa,  Licht.,  of  the 
Northern  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
is  less  than  four  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  a  quarter 
inches,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  black  of  the  crown 
embracing  a  central  patch  of  orange-red  encircled  by 
gamboge-yellow  ;  the  forehead,  line  over  the  eye,  and 
space  beneath  it,  white.  It  is  exceedingly  active,  and 
may  generally  be  found  with  other  small  birds  gleaning 


1 72  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

among  the  foliage  of  trees  and  bushes  in  search  of  mi- 
nute insects  and  larvae. 

Cuvier's  Golden  Crest,  R.  Cuvieri,  Aud.,  differs  mainly 
from  the  preceding  in  having  two  black  bands  on  the 
crown  anteriorly,  separated  by  a  whitish  one. 

The  Genus  Hydrobata  comprises  the  Water  Ouzels. 
The  American  Dipper  or  Water  Ouzel,  H.  mexicana, 
Baird,  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  from  British  America  to 
Mexico,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing 

four  inches ;  the  color  dark  plum- 
beous above,  and  paler  beneath. 
A  closely  related  species  is  found 
in  Europe. 

The  Ouzel  frequents  moun- 
tain streams,  into  which  it  walks 
or  dives,  and  moves  about  in 
search  of  aquatic  insects  and 
other  small  animals,  which  con- 

Water  Ouzel,.  H.  mexicana   Baird.  .  .         <- 

stitute  its  food. 

SYLVICOLIM:,  OR  WARBLER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  a  large  number  of  very  small,  but  exceedingly 
beautiful  and  interesting  birds.  They  are  characterized 
by  a  conical,  slender,  or  depressed  bill  usually  half  the 
length  of  the  head,  nine  primaries,  the  first  nearly  as 
long  as  the  second  and  third,  the  tarsi  distinctly  scutel- 
late  anteriorly,  lateral  toes  nearly  equal  and  shorter  than 
the  middle  one,  and  the  basal  joint  of  the  middle  one 
free  nearly  to  its  base  externally,  and  united  for  half 
the  length  interiorly.  This  family  is  numerously  repre- 
sented in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Many  species  are  gen- 
erally found  in  the  same  locality,  and  may  be  seen  a 
great  part  of  the  day  gliding  among  the  thick  foliage, 
busily  engaged  in  catching  the  minute  insects  which  lurk 
beneath  the  leaves  and  in  the  buds  and  blossoms,  and 
which  for  the  most  part  escape  the  sight  of  other  and 


INSESSORES  :    SYLVICOLID.E.  1/3 

% 

larger  birds.  Some  of  the  warblers  and  some  of  the 
thrushes  are  so  nearly  related,  that  each  is  often  placed 
in  the  group  of  the  other,  according  to  the  importance  at- 
tached to  different  characters  by  different  writers.  Some 
of  the  warblers  are  among  the  sweetest  of  the  feathered 
songsters. 

The  Genus  Philomela  com-  Fig.  107. 

prises  the  Nightingale,  P.  lus- 
cinia,  Sw.,  of  Europe,  the  sweet 
and  celebrated  songster  of  the 
night.  It  is  about  six  inch- 
es long,  reddish  brown  above, 
whitish  gray  beneath. 

More   than  fifty  species  of         Nightingale,  />.  &*»*, 
Warblers  are  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Genus  Anthus  has  the  bill  slender,  much  attenu- 
ated, and  distinctly  notched,  the  wing  very  long,  the  first 
primary  nearly  equal  to  the  longest,  and  the  tertials  al- 
most as  long  as  the  primaries. 

The  Tit-Lark,  A.  ludovicianus,  Licht,  of  North  Amer- 
ica generally  and  accidental  in  Europe,  is  six  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  three  fourths  inches  ;  the 
color  above  olive  brown,  beneath  dull  buff  or  yellowish 
brown,  with  a  series  of  dark  brown  spots  and  streaks 
across  the  breast  and  along  the  sides.  This  is  one  of 
the  few  species  of  its  family  which  frequent  open  fields. 

The  Genus  Neocorys  is  closely  related  to  the  preceding, 
but  is  stouter,  and  the  tail  shorter. 

The  Missouri  Skylark,  N.  Spragueii,  Sclater,  of  Ne- 
braska, is  our  only  species.  It  is  five  and  three  fourths 
inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  three  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Mniotilta  comprises  the  Black  and  White 
Creeper,  M.  varia,  Vieill.,  of  North  America  east  of  the 
Missouri,  which  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing  less  than 
three  inches  ;  the  color  black,  the  feathers  broadly  edged 


i/4  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

with  white  ;  the  head  black  ;  a  median,  superciliary,  and 
maxillary  stripe,  the  middle  of  the  belly,  two  bands  upon 
the  wings,  outer  edges  of  tertials,  inner  edges  of  wing 
and  tail  feathers,  and  a  spot  on  the  inner  webs  of  the 
outer  two  tail  feathers,  white.  Its  notes  are  few,  being  a 
series  of  rapidly  repeated  tweets,  the  last  one  much  pro- 
longed. It  flies  only  from  one  tree  to  another  which 
is  nearest,  and  which  it  ascends  or  descends  in  a  spiral 
direction,  searching  for  insects  and  larvae. 

The  Genus  Parula  comprises  the  Blue  Yellow-backed 
Warbler,  P.  americcma,  Bonap.,  of  North  America  east 
of  the  Missouri,  which  is  four  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  the  wing  about  two  and  one  third  inches ;  the  color 
blue  above,  with  a  patch  of  yellowish  green  upon  the 
back  ;  under  parts  yellow  before  and  white  behind  ;  two 
white  bands  across  the  wings,  a  small  white  spot  on 
either  eyelid,  and  a  conspicuous  white  spot  on  the  outer 
two  tail  feathers.  This  species  utters  a  soft  prolonged 
twitter,  its  only  song. 

The  Genus  Protonotaria  comprises  the  Prothonotary 
Warbler,  P.  citrea,  Baird,  of  the  Southern  and  Western 
States,  which  is  less  than  five  and  a  half  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  less  than  three  inches ;  the  head,  neck,  and 
under  parts  rich  yellow ;  back  dark  olive-green,  with  a 
tinge  of  yellow  ;  rump,  tail  above,  and  wings,  bluish  ash. 
The  Genus  Geothlypis  has  the  bill  distinctly  notched, 
bristles  short  or  wanting,  wings  short  and  rounded,  tail 
long,  the  general  color  olive  green  above,  yellow  below. 
Fig  Iog  The  Maryland  Yellow-throat, 

G.  trichas,  Cab.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  five  and  a  half  inches  long, 
the  wing  two  and  four  tenths 
inches ;  and  readily  distinguished 

by  a  band  of  black  on  the  fore- 
Maryland  Yellow-throat, — female,     . 

G.  trickas,  Cab.  head,   cheeks,    and    ear-coverts. 


INSESSORES:    SYLVICOHD,E.  1/5 

The  female  is  without  the  black  band.  This  Warbler 
builds  its  nest  upon  the  ground,  and  lays  four  to  six 
white  eggs  speckled  with  light  brown. 

The  Gray-headed  Warbler,  G.  velatus,  Cab.,  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  perhaps  found  in  the  United  States, 
is  four  and  three  fourths  inches  long,  and  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  by  a  narrower  black  frontal  band, 
and  by  the  dark  ash  of  the  crown. 

The  Mourning  Warbler,  G.  Philadelphia,  Baird,  of  East- 
ern North  America,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the 
wing  less  than  two  and  a  half  inches ;  and  distinguished 
by  the  ashy  gray  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  the  black 
patch  on  the  fore  part  of  the  breast. 

Macgillivray.'s  Warbler,  G.  Macgillivrayi,  Baird,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing 
less  than  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  head  and  neck  ash, 
a  narrow  frontlet  and  space  around  the  eye  black,  the 
feathers  of  the  forward  under  parts  really  black,  but 
appearing  gray  from  the  ashy  tips  of  the  feathers ;  the 
rest  of  the  upper  parts  dark  olive-green,  and  of  the  lower, 
yellow. 

The  Genus  Oporornis  has  the  bill  rather  compressed, 
wings  elongated,  tail  slightly  rounded,  tarsi  elongated, 
and  claws  large  ;  above  olive  green  beneath  yellow. 

The  Connecticut  Warbler,  O.  agilis,  Baird,  of  the 
Eastern  United  States,  very  rare,  is  six  inches  long, 
the  wing  three  inches. 

The  Kentucky  Warbler,  O.  formosus,  Baird,  of  the 
Eastern  United  States,  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing 
less  than  three ;  and  distinguished  by  the  yellow  throat 
and  superciliary  stripe,  and  by  the  top  of  the  head 
and  streak  beneath  the  eye,  which  are  black. 

The  Genus  Icteria  comprises  the  Chats. 

The  Yellow-breasted  Chat,  7.  viridis,  Bonap.,  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  nearly  seven  and 


176  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  a  quarter  inches ; 
the  color  of  the  upper  parts  olive-green,  the  forward  half 
of  the  under  parts,  including  the  inside  of  the  wing, 
gamboge-yellow  ;  the  rest  of  the  under  parts  white. 

The  Long-tailed  Chat,  /.  longicauda,  Lawr.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  seven  inches  long,  and  very  similar  to 
the  preceding,  but  with  a  longer  tail. 

The  Genus  Helmitherus  has  the  bill  large,  stout,  com- 
pressed, about  as  long  as  the  head,  with  neither  notch 
nor  bristles ;  tarsi  short,  wings  long. 

The  Worm-eating  Warbler,  H.  vermivorus,  Bonap.,  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  inches  ;  the  upper  parts  clear 
olive-green,  the  head  with  four  black  stripes  and  three 
brownish-yellow  ones  ;  the  under  parts  pale  brownish- 
yellow,  tinged  with  buff  across  the  breast. 

Swainson's  Warbler,  H.  Swainsonii,  Bonap.,  of  the 
Southern  States,  is  over  five  inches  and  a  half  long,  the 
wing  less  than  three  inches ;  above  dull  olive-green,  a 
superciliary  stripe  and  the  under  parts  of  the  body  white, 
tinged  with  yellow. 

The  Genus  Helminthophaga  has  the  bill  elongated,  very 
acute,  without  a  notch,  wings  long  and  pointed,  the  first 
quill  nearly  or  quite  the  longest,  tail  nearly  even  and 
rather  slender,  and  the  tarsi  longer  than  the  middle  toe. 

The  Blue-winged  Yellow  Warbler,  H.  pinus,  Baird,  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  four  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  four  tenths  inches  ;  above 
olive-green,  the  wings  and  tail  bluish-gray,  the  crown  and 
under  parts  rich  orange-yellow.  Its  nest  is  elongated 
and  attached  by  its  upper  edge  to  several  stout  stalks  of 
grass ;  eggs  four  to  six,  pure  white,  with  a  few  pale  red 
spots  at  the  larger  end. 

The  Golden-winged  Warbler,  H.  chrysoptera,  Baird,  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  about  five  inches 


INSESSORES  :  SYLVICOLIM:.  177 

long,  the  wing  less  than  two  and  three  fourths  inches  ; 
the  upper  parts  bluish  gray,  the  head  above  and  a  large 
patch  upon  the  wings  yellow ;  the  throat  and  fore  part 
of  the  breast  black,  the  rest  of  the  under  parts  white. 

Bachman's  Warbler,  H.  Bachmani,  Cab.,  of  the  South- 
ern States,  is  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  color  olive 
green  above  ;  the  throat,  fore  part  of  the  breast,  and 
band  across  the  crown,  black ;  the  forehead,  lesser  wing- 
coverts,  chin,  and  under  parts,  yellow. 

The  Nashville  Warbler,  H.  ruficapilla,  Baird,  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  over  four  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  two  and  a  half  inches ; 
the  color  olive  green  above,  under  parts  deep  yellow. 

The  Orange-crowned  Warbler,  H.  celata,  Baird,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  less  than  five  inches  long, 
the  wing  two  and  a  quarter  inches,  the  color  above  olive 
green,  the  under  parts  greenish  yellow,  and  there  is  a  con- 
cealed patch  of  pale  brownish-orange  on  the  crown. 

The  Tennessee  Warbler,  H.  peregrina,  Cab.,  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  four  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  three  fourths  inches ;  the 
color  above  olive  green,  beneath  dull  white,  the  top  and 
sides  of  the  head  ash  gray. 

The  Genus  Seiurus  has  the  bill  compressed,  distinctly 
notched,  and  with  very  short  bristles ;  the  wings  longer 
than  the  tail,  which  is  slightly  rounded,  and  the  feathers 
acuminate  ;  the  color  above  olivaceous,  beneath  whitish. 

The  Golden-crowned  Thrush,  or  Oven-Bird,  5.  auroca- 
pillus,  Sw.,  of  North  America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  six 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  inches ;  the  middle  of  the 
crown  brownish  orange  bordered  by  black.  Its  nest  is 
on  the  ground,  and  is  oven-shaped ;  eggs  white,  spotted 
with  reddish  brown  near  the  larger  end. 

The  Water  Thrush,  5.  novebor'acensis,  Nutt.,  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Missouri  and  southward,  is 
8*  L 


178  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

over  six  inches  long,  and  the  wing  over  three  inches, 
the  bill  small,  a  superciliary  stripe  brownish  yellow,  the 
under  parts  streaked  with  olivaceous  brown,  and  the 
breast  almost  black. 

The  Large-billed  Water-Thrush,  5.  ludoviciamts,  Bonap., 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  six  and  one 
third  inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  a  quarter  inches ; 
and  distinguished  by  its  large  bill,  and  superciliary  white 
stripe. 

The  Genus  Deitdroica,  formerly  Sylvicola,  has  the  bill 
attenuated,  depressed  at  the  base,  compressed  from  the 
middle,  bill  distinctly  notched,  bristles  short  but  distinct, 
tarsi  long,  the  hind  claw  long,  the  wings  long  and  pointed, 
the  second  quill  usually  a  very  little  longer  than  the  first, 
tail  slightly  rounded,  and  always  with  a  white  spot.  More 
than  twenty  species  belonging  to  this  genus  are  found  in 
the  United  States.  By  adopting  the  synopsis  of  the  spe- 
cies as  given  by  Baird,  they  may  readily  be  defined. 

A.  Those  belonging  to  this  group  have  the  chin,  throat, 
and  fore  part  of  the  breast  black  bordered  by  lighter, 
the  back  streaked,  two  white  bands  upon  the  wing,  and 
the  outer  tail-feathers  mainly  white. 

The  Black-throated  Green  Warbler,  D.  virens,  Baird, 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  inches 
long,  the  wing  over  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  crown  and 
back  olive,  the  forehead,  superciliary  and  maxillary  stripes 
yellow. 

The  Western  Warbler,  D.  occidentdlis,  Baird,  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  is  four  and  seven  tenths  inches  long,  the 
wing  two  and  seven  tenths  inches,  the  top  and  sides  of 
the  head  yellow,  the  back  ash  conspicuously  streaked. 

Townsend's  Warbler,  D.  Townsendii,  Baird,  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  six  tenths 
inches,  the  crown  blackish,  back  olive,  superciliary  and 
maxillary  stripes  yellow. 


INSESSORES:   SYLVICOLHXE.  1/9 

The  Black-throated  Gray  Warbler,  D.  nigrescens,  Baird, 
of  the  Pacific  coast,  is  four  and  seven  tenths  inches  long, 
the  wing  two  and  three  tenths,  the  crown  black,  back 
ash,  superciliary  and  maxillary  stripe  white. 

B.  This  group  comprises  those  which  have  the  sides 
and  under  parts  of  the  head  black. 

The  Black-throated  Blue  Warbler,  D.  canadensis,  Baird, 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  a 
half  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  six  tenths,  blue  above, 
white  beneath,  primaries  with^a  white  patch  at  base,  and 
the  sides  and  under  parts  of  the  head  black. 

C.  Those   in  this  group  have  a  central  longitudinal 
yellow  patch  on  the  crown. 

The  Yellow-rump  Warbler,  D.  coronata,  Gray,  of  East- 
ern North  America  to  the  Missouri  plains,  is  five  and  six 
tenths  inches  long,  the  wing  three  inches,  the  color  slate- 
blue  above,  throat  white,  breast  blackish,  the  sides  and 
rump  with  a  yellow  patch. 

Audubon's  Warbler,  D.  Audubonii,  Baird,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
wing  nearly  three  and  a  quarter  inches,  the  throat  yellow, 
and  one  large  white  patch  upon  the  wing. 

The  Blackburnian  Warbler,  D. 
Blackburnice,  Baird,  of  North.  Amer- 
ica east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and 
a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  less 
than  three  inches,  the  back  black, 
throat  bright  orange,  and  a  patch 

.  .,    r  Blackburnian  Warbler, 

on  the  wing  and  outer  tail-feathers        Dm 


white. 

D.  In  this  group  the  sides  and  throat  are  chestnut, 
and  the  back  streaked. 

The  Bay-breasted  Warbler,  D.  castanea,  Baird,  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  inches  long,  the 
wing  three  inches,  the  crown  chestnut,  sides  of  the  head 
black,  and  belly  white. 


i8o  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

E.  Those  in  this  group  have  the  under  parts  white, 
back  streaked  with  black,  and  the  wings  with  white  bands. 

The  Chestnut-sided  Warbler,  D.  pennsylvanicay  Baird, 
of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  crown  yellow 
encircled  with  white,  sides  of  the  head  black,  enclosing  a 
white  patch  behind,  and  sides  of  the  body  chestnut. 

The  Blue  Warbler,  D.  ccemlea,  Baird,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  four  and  a  quarter  inches 
long,  the  wing  over  two  and  a  half  inches,  blue  above 
and  across  the  breast,  the  sides  of  the  crown  and  body 
streaked  with  black. 

The  Black  Poll  Warbler,  D.  striata,  Baird,  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  three  quarters 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  inches,  the  crown  and  streaks 
upon  the  sides  black,  the  cheeks  below  the  eye  white. 

F.  Those  of  this  group  have  the  throat  uniform  yel- 
low, separated  from  the  belly  by  a  series  of  pectoral 
streaks,  and  the  sides  are  streaked. 

The  Pine-Creeping  Warbler,  D.  pimis,  Baird,  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  three  inches,  olive  green  above,  and 
yellow  beneath  ;  two  dull  white  bands  upon  the  wings. 

The  Blue  Mountain  Warbler,  D.  montana,  Baird,  of  the 
Blue  Mountains,  Virginia,  is  four  and  three  quarters 
inches  long,  olive  green  above,  forehead  and  under  parts 
yellow. 

The  Yellow  Warbler,  D.  czstiva,  Baird,  of  the  United 
States,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  over 
two  and  a  half  inches,  the  general  color  yellow,  back  oliva- 
ceous, ventral  streaks  brownish  red. 

The  Black  and  Yellow  Warbler,  D.  mactilosa,  Baird,  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  crown  blue, 
rump  yellow,  sides  of  the  head  and  back  black,  spots  on 


INSESSORES  :   SYLVICOLID^E.  l8l 

the  central  third  of  the  tail  and  a  large  patch  upon  the 
wing  white,  and  large  black  streaks  on  the  under  parts. 

Kirtland's  Warbler,  D.  Kirtlandii,  Baird,  of  Ohio,  is 
five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  eight  tenths 
inches,  blue  above  streaked  with  black,  the  sides  of  the 
head  and  inferior  streaks  black,  and  a  white  patch  at  the 
end  of  the  tail. 

The  Yellow-Red  ?o\\,D.palmarum,  Baird,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing 
nearly  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  crown,  sides  of  the  head, 
and  inferior  streaks  rufous,  rump  greenish-yellow,  a  white 
spot  on  the  end  of  the  tail,  superciliary  streak  and  under 
parts  yellow. 

The  Cape  May  Warbler,  D.  tigrina,  Baird,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches 
long,  the  wing  nearly  three  inches,  the  bill  acute  and  de- 
curved,  the  color  olive  above,  rump  and  under  parts  yel- 
low, crown  blackish,  sides  of  the  head  chestnut. 

G.  Those  of  this  group  have  the  throat  yellow,  and 
not  separated  from  the  belly  by  pectoral  streaks. 

The  Carbonated  Warbler,  D.  carbonata,  Baird,  of  Ken- 
tucky, is  four  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  olive  green 
above,  spotted  with  black,  crown  black,  beneath  yellow- 
ish, a  band  on  the  wing  and  edge  of  the  tail  whitish. 

The  Yellow-throated  Warbler,  D.  superciliosa,  Baird, 
from  Pennsylvania  to  the  Missouri,  is  over  five  inches  long, 
the  wing  over  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  back  slate-col- 
ored, under  parts  white,  crown  and  sides  of  the  head  and 
neck  black,  superciliary  stripe  yellow,  changing  to  white 
behind. 

The  Prairie  Warbler,  D.  discolor,  Baird,  of  the  Atlantic 
States,  is  nearly  five  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  a 
quarter  inches  ;  olivaceous  above,  the  back  streaked  with 
red  ;  under  parts  and  superciliary  stripe  yellow,  and  a 
black  mark  on  the  side  of  the  head. 


1 82  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Sylvia  comprises  the  Tailor-Bird,  5.  sutoria, 
Lath.,  of  the  East  Indies,  which  is  about  five  inches  long, 
and  celebrated  for  the  ingenious  way  in  which  it  prepares 
a  place  for  its  nest.  Picking  up  a  leaf,  it  sews  its  edges, 
with  a  thread  which  it  makes  or  finds,  to  a  living  leaf, 
leaving  an  opening  above ;  and  thus  a  pouch  is  formed 
which  is  suspended  by  the  leaf-stalk  of  the  living  leaf. 
In  the  bottom  of  this  the  nest  is  made.  Sometimes  it 
sews  together  two  contiguous  living  leaves. 

The  Genus  Myiodioctes  is  characterized  by  a  depressed 
bill  notched  at  the  tip,  the  gape  with  long  bristles,  wings 
longer  than  the  tail,  and  the  latter  rounded  or  graduated  ; 
the  colors  olive  or  plumbeous  above,  and  yellow  beneath. 

The  Hooded  Warbler,  M.  miiratus,  Aud.,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  three  quarters  inches,  the  head  and  neck  black, 
back  olive  green,  the  front,  cheeks,  and  under  parts  yel- 
low, and  the  tail  with  white  on  the  outer  feathers. 

The  Small-headed  Flycatcher,  M.  minutus,  Baird,  of 
the  Atlantic  States,  is  five  inches  long,  olive  above,  yellow 
beneath,  and  the  wings  with  two  white  bands. 

The  Green  Black-cap  Flycatcher,  M.  pzisillus,  Bonap., 
of  the  United  States,  is  four  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  a  quarter  inches,  the  upper  parts 
olive,  the  forehead,  line  over  the  eye,  and  under  parts 
bright  yellow,  the  crown  with  a  black  patch. 

The  Canada  Flycatcher,  M.  canadensis,  Aud.,  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  about  five  and 
a  third  inches  long,  the  wing  about  two  and  two  thirds 
inches,  the  back  bluish  ;  streaks  upon  the  crown,  stripe 
on  the  side  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  collar  of  streaks 
upon  the  breast,  black. 

Bonaparte's  Flycatcher,  M.  Bonapartii,  Aud.,  of  Lou- 
isiana, is  over  five  inches  long,  and  closely  resembles  the 
preceding  species. 


INSESSORES:    SYLVICOLID^:.  183 

The  Genus  Cardellina  comprises  the  Vermilion  Fly- 
catcher, C.  rubra,  Bonap.,  of  Northern  Mexico,  which  is 
over  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  color  dark  crimson. 

The  Genus  Setophaga  has  the  bill  depressed,  the  tip 
abruptly  decurved  and  much  notched,  the  rictus  with 
long  bristles,  wings  rounded,  and  tail  short. 

The  Redstart,  5.  ruticilla,  Sw.,  of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long, 
the  wing  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  general  color  black, 
the  sides  of  the  breast  and  base  of  the  quills  and  tail 
reddish  orange,  and  the  abdomen  white.  This  is  one  of 
the  handsomest  and  liveliest  birds  of  our  forests.  It  is 
almost  constantly  hunting  insects  along  the  branches, 
and  with  every  movement  it  opens  and  shuts  its  beautiful 
tail,  then  flirts  it  from  side  to  side,  and  at  the  same  time 
utters  its  pleasing  tetee  whee.  The  nest  is  built  upon  a 
low  bush,  and  appears  to  hang  to  the  twigs  ;  eggs  four  to 
six,  white,  sprinkled  with  ashy  gray  and  blackish  dots. 

The  Painted  Flycatcher,  5.  picta,  Sw.,  of  Northern 
Mexico,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  two 
and  a  half  inches,  the  color  black,  belly  red,  patch  on  the 
wings  and  outer  tail-feathers  white. 

The  Genus  Pyranga  has  the  bill  rather  straight,  notched 
at  the  tip,  the  wings  elongated,  the  color  of  the  male 
scarlet,  of  the  female  yellowish. 

The  Scarlet  Tanager,  P.  rubra,  VieilL,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  seven  and  four  tenths 
inches  long,  the  wing  four  inches,  the  color  bright  scar- 
let, wings  and  tail  black.  Its  notes  are  not  very  musical, 
and  have  been  represented  by  Wilson  by  the  syllables 
chip  churr.  Its  nest  is  on  a  low  branch  of  a  tree  ;  eggs 
three  to  five,  dull  greenish-blue,  speckled  with  reddish 
brown  and  light  purple. 

The  Summer  Red  Bird,  P.  cestiva,  VieilL,  of  the  South- 
ern Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  is  seven  and  one  fifth 


1 84  VERTEBRATES  :   BIRDS. 

inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  three  quarters  inches ; 
the  color  light  red,  back  more  dusky. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Tanager,  P.  hepatica,  Sw.,  is  eight 
inches  long,  and  dark  scarlet-red  tinged  with  ashy  on  the 
back  and  sides. 

The  Louisiana  Tanager,  P.  ludoviciana,  Bonap.,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  seven  and  a  quarter  inches 
long,  the  wing  over  three  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  general 
color  of  the  interscapular  region,  wings,  and  tail,  black  ; 
head  and  throat  tinged  with  scarlet,  and  the  wings  with 
two  whitish  bands. 

The  Genus  Euphonia  comprises  the  Blue-headed  Tana- 
ger, E.  elegantissima,  Gray,  of  Mexico,  which  is  about 
four  and  two  thirds  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  three 
quarters  inches,  bluish  black  above,  yellowish  below,  the 
top  of  the  head  blue. 

HIRUNDINID^E,  OR  SWALLOW  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  birds  with  a  very  short,  depressed,  and  tri- 
angular bill,  very  long  wings,  very  short  tarsi,  and  tail 
generally  forked. 

The  Genus  Hirundo  has  the  tail  more  or  less  forked. 

The  Barn  Swallow,  H.  horreomm,  Barton,  of  North 
America,  is  six  and  nine  tenths  inches  long,  the  wings 
five  inches,  and  the  tail  excessively  forked  ;  the  color 
steel-blue  above,  forehead  and  throat  chestnut  brown, 
belly  reddish  white. 

The  Cliff  Swallow,  H.  lunifrons,  Say,  of  North  America, 
is  five  inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  four  and  a  half 
inches,  the  tail  emarginate,  the  crown  and  back  steel- 
blue,  throat  and  sides  of  the  head  dark  chestnut,  breast 
fuscous,  belly  white. 

The  White-bellied  Swallow,  H.  bicolor,  VieilL,  of  North 
America,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  five 
inches  ;  glossy  metallic  green  above,  white  beneath. 

The  Violet-Green  Swallow,  H.  thalassina,  Sw.,  of  West- 


INSESSORES:   HIRUNDINIDjE.  185 

ern  North  America,  is  four  and  three  quarters  inches  long, 
the  wing  four  and  a  half  inches,  the  tail  acutely  emargi- 
nate  ;  the  color  green  above,  pure  white  below. 

The  Edible  Swallow-nest  Swallow,  H.  esculeiita,  Linn., 
is  a  very  small  species  of  the  East  Indies,  whose  nests, 
composed  of  a  whitish  gelatinous  substance,  are  held  in 
high  estimation  by  epicures,  and  which  constitute  an  im- 
portant article  of  commerce. 

The  Genus  Cotyle  is  distinguished  from  Hirundo  by  the 
slightly  forked  tail,  very  slender  toes,  and  dull  color. 

The  Bank  Swallow,  C.  riparia,  Boie,  of  North  America, 
is  four  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  the  wing  four  inches ; 
the  upper  parts  grayish  brown,  under  parts  white,  with  a 
band  across  the  breast  like  the  back. 

The  Rough-winged  Swallow,  C.  serripmnis,  Bonap.,  of 
North  America,  is  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  first 
primary  with  the  outer  web  much  stiffened ;  the  color 
sooty  brown  above,  grayish  beneath. 

The  Genus  Progne  has  the  bill  strong  and  short,  toes 
long  and  strong,  and  the  size  is  the  largest  of  the  family. 

The  Purple  Martin,  P.  purpurea,  Boie,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  seven  and  three  tenths  inches  long,  the  wing  less 
than  six  inches ;  the  color  glossy  steel-blue,  with  purple 
and  violet  reflections. 

It  need  scarcely  be  stated,  that  the  notion  which  some 
entertain,  that  swallows  spend  the  winter  at  the  bottom 
of  ponds,  is  entirely  erroneous. 

BOMBYCILLID.E,  OR  WAXWING  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  birds  with  the  bill  short,  broad,  much  de- 
pressed, and  the  gape  opening  to  the  eyes ;  both  man- 
dibles notched,  the  upper  with  a  tooth  behind  the  notch, 
the  outer  lateral  toe  the  longest,  and  the  head  generally 
crested. 

The  Genus  Ampelis  —  Waxwings  —  has  the  tail  even, 
and  some  of  the  quills  with  horny  appendages  that  look 
like  sealing-wax. 


1 86  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

The  Bohemian  Chatterer  or  Waxwing,  A.  garrulus, 
Linn.,  of  the  northern  parts  of  both  continents,  is  nearly 
seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  a  half 
inches ;  the  general  color  brownish  ash,  primaries  and  tail- 
feathers  plumbeous  black,  the  tail  with  a  terminal  band  of 
yellow,  the  head  and  throat  marked  with  black,  the  wings 
with  white,  and  the  secondaries  have  red  horny  tips. 

The  Cedar  Bird,  A.  cedronim,  Baird,  of  North  America, 
is  seven  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  over  four 
inches ;  the  general  color  reddish  olive  passing  into  yel- 
low below,  and  posteriorly  above  into  ashy ;  the  forehead, 
space  below  the  eye,  and  a  line  above  it,  intense  black ; 
the  quills  and  tail  dark  plumbeous  and  dusky,  the  tail 
tipped  with  yellow  ;  and  the  secondaries  have  red  horny 
tips.  It  is  impossible  to  describe  the  plumage  of  this 
beautiful  bird,  it  is  so  silky,  and  its  tints  so  delicate  in 
their  shadings.  The  Cedar  Bird  builds  her  nest  in  low 
trees  or  bushes,  and  lays  four  purplish  white  eggs  marked 
with  black  spots. 

The  Genus  Myiadestes  comprises  Townsend's  Flycatch- 
er, M.  Townsendiiy  Cab.,  of  Western  North  America,  which 
is  eight  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  a  half  inches,  the 
tail  deeply  forked,  the  general  color  bluish  ash. 

LANID^E,  OR  SHRIKE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
birds  with  a  strong  compressed  bill,  the  tip  abruptly 
hooked,  both  mandibles  distinctly  notched,  the  upper 
with  a  distinct  tooth,  the  lower  with  the  point  bent  up- 
ward, and  the  tarsi  longer  than  the  middle  toe  and 
strongly  scutellate.  This  family  comprises  the  Shrikes 
and  the  Vireos. 

The  Genus  Colly rio  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head, 
the  tip  of  the  lower  mandible  bent  upward,  rictus  with 
long  bristles,  legs  stout,  wings  rounded,  and  claws  very 
sharp. 

The  Great  Northern  Shrike,  or  Butcher-Bird,  C.  borealis, 


INSESSORES  :    LANID.E.  1 87 

Baird,  of  North  America,  is  nearly  nine  inches  long,  the 
wing  four  and  a  half  inches,  the  color  above  light  blu- 
ish ash,  the  un- 
der  parts  white, 
the  breast  with 
fine  transverse 
lines ;  the  wings 
and  tail  black. 
It  preys  mainly 
on  insects,  spar- 
rows, and  Other  Great  Northern  Shrike,  C.  borealis,  Baird. 

small  birds.  It  has  the  power  of  imitating  the  sounds  of 
other  birds,  especially  those  indicating  distress  ;  and  has 
the  singular  habit  of  impaling  birds  and  insects  upon  the 
points  of  twigs  and  thorns ;  but  for  what  object  is  not 
well  understood. 

The  Loggerhead  Shrike,  C.  ludoviciamis,  Baird,  of  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  is  nine  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  nearly  four  inches. 

The  White-rumped  Shrike,  C.  excubitoroides,  Baird,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  eight  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  nearly  four  inches. 

The  White-winged  Shrike,  C.  elegans,  Baird,  inhabits 
Western  North  America. 

The  Genus  Vireo  has  the  bill  short,  compressed,  the 
tip  bent  downward,  wings  rather  long  and  pointed,  tail 
nearly  even,  and  tarsi  longer  than  the  middle  toe. 

The  Red-eyed  Vireo  or  Flycatcher,  V.  olivaceus,  Vieill, 
of  North  America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  six  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  a  half  inches  ;  olive  green 
above,  white  below,  the  crown  dark  ash,  and  iris  red ;  a 
whitish  line  from  the  bill  over  the  eye,  a  dark  line  between 
this  and  the  ashy  crown,  and  a  dusky  line  through  the  eye. 
This  is  one  of  the  earliest  singers  of  spring,  and  latest  of 
autumn.  Its  notes  are  loud,  clear,  and  melodious,  and 


1 88  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

are  heard  throughout  the  day  among  the  taller  trees. 
The  nest  is  generally  suspended  from  forked  twigs ;  eggs 
four  to  six,  spotted  with  reddish  brown  at  the  larger  end. 
The  Yellow-green  Vireo,  V.  flavoviridis,  Cass.,  of  North- 
ern Mexico  and  southward,  closely  resembles  the  preced- 
ing, but  the  colors  are  more  strongly  marked. 

Bartram's  Vireo,  V.  virescens,  Vieill.,  of  Central  and 
South  America  and  possibly  of  the  Atlantic  United 
States,  resembles  V.  olivaceiis,  but  is  smaller. 

The  Whip  Tom  Kelly,  V.  altiloquus,  Gray,  of  Florida 
and  the  West  Indies,  is  very  similar  to  V.  olivaceus. 

Fis-  '»•  ^         The  Warbling  Flycatcher  or 

Vireo,  V.gilvus,  Bonap.,  of  North 
America,  is  about  five  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  about  three 
inches ;  the  color  olive  green 
above,  beneath  white,  tinged  with 
very  pale  yellow  on  the  breast 

Warbling  Flycatcher,  and  sides.      ItS  SOng  is  low,  mel- 

V.  eil-vus,  Bonap.  1  -, 

low,  and  sweet. 

The  Philadelphia  Vireo,  V.  philadelphicus,  Cass.,  of 
Pennsylvania  to  Wisconsin,  closely  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding one,  but  is  at  once  distinguished  by  the  absence 
of  the  spurious  primary. 

Bell's  Vireo,  V.  Belli,  Aud.,  of  Missouri  River  and  Texas, 
is  four  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  a 
quarter  inches,  and  is  very  similar  to  V.  gilvus,  but 
smaller,  and  the  spurious  primary  is  large. 

The  Black-headed  Flycatcher,  V.  atricapilliis,  Woodh., 
of  Texas,  is  four  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  the  wing 
over  two  inches  ;  olive  green  above,  white  beneath,  the 
head  and  neck  above  and  on  the  sides  black. 

The  White-eyed  Vireo,  V.  noveboracensis,  Bonap.,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  inches  long, 
the  wing  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  spurious  primary 


INSESSORES:    LIOTRICHID,E.  189 

half  the  length  of  the  second  ;  the  upper  parts  bright 
olivaceous-green  ;  under  parts  white,  the  sides  of  the 
breast  and  body  yellow.  The  space  around  the  eyes  is 
greenish  yellow,  and  the  iris  is  white ;  the  wings  have  two 
yellowish-white  bands.  This  bird  frequents  the  thickest 
bushes.  It  sings  with  great  spirit,  and  often  throughout 
the  day.  The  nest  is  attached  to  the  twigs  of  a  low 
bush  ;  eggs  four  to  six,  pure  white,  marked  with  dark 
spots  near  the  larger  end. 

Hutton's  Flycatcher,  V.  Huttoni,  Cass.,  of  Southern 
California,  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  preceding  one, 
but  has  the  bill  much  more  slender. 

The  Blue-headed  Flycatcher,  V.  solitarius,  Vieill.,  of 
North  America,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  four  tenths  inches,  the  spurious  primary  very 
small ;  olive  green  above,  top  and  sides  of  the  head  and 
upper  part  of  the  neck  dark  bluish-ash  ;  under  parts 
white,  the  sides  under  the  wings  greenish  yellow. 

The  Yellow-throated  Flycatcher,  V.  flavifrons,  Vieill., 
of  North  America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  six  inches  long, 
the  wing  over  three  inches,  and  with  no  spurious  primary ; 
the  color  from  the  bill  to  the  middle  of  the  back,  sides 
of  the  head,  neck,  and  fore  part  of  the  breast,  olive  green  ; 
the  rest  of  the  upper  parts  ashy  blue.  The  under  parts, 
from  the  bill  to  the  middle  of  the  belly,  with  a  ring  around 
the  eye,  sulphur-yellow  ;  the  remaining  under  parts  white. 
This  bird  prefers  the  taller  trees,  whose  branches  it  as- 
cends by  regular  short  hops,  searching  every  leaf  in  its 
way.  Its  notes  are  measured  and  plaintive.  The  nest  is 
attached  to  the  extremity  of  small  twigs,  and  is  sometimes 
five  or  six  inches  deep  ;  it  is  an  exceedingly  interesting 
structure.  The  eggs  are  four  to  five,  white,  spotted  with 
reddish  brown. 

LIOTRICHHXE,  OR  MOCKING-BIRD  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  birds  with  the  bill  slender,  straight,  or  curved, 


IQO  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

as  long  or  longer  than  the  head,  slightly  notched,  or  not 
at  all  ;  the  wings  short,  concave,  and  rounded,  the  tarsi 
long,  and  generally  strongly  scutellate.  This  is  an  exten- 
sive family,  and  embraces  forms  which  at  first  'seem  to 
differ  greatly,  but  which  are  now  regarded  as  related  in 
their  most  essential  characteristics. 

The  Genus  Mimus  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head, 
decurved  from  the  base,  and  distinctly  notched. 

The  Mocking-Bird, 

Fig.    112.  & 

M.polyglottuS)  Boie,  of 
the  Southern  States,  is 
nine  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  four 
and  a  half  inches  ; 
olive  gray  above,  whit- 
ish beneath,  the  wing 
and  tail  black,  the  base 


the  tip  of  the  tail  white.  This  bird  imitates  with  ease 
the  songs  and  notes  of  all  the  birds  he  hears.  Audubon 
considers  the  singing  of  our  Mocking-Bird  superior  to  that 
of  the  Nightingale. 

The  Cat  Bird,  M.  carolinensis,  Gray,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  less  than  nine  inches  long, 
the  wing  over  three  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  general  color 
dark  plumbeous  ;  the  under  tail  coverts  dark  brownish- 
chestnut.  In  spring  its  song  is  exceedingly  varied,  mel- 
low, and  sweet.  It  also  possesses  a  remarkable  power  of 
imitating  the  notes  of  other  birds,  and  has  been  heard  to 
imitate  perfectly  a  strain  of  Yankee  Doodle.  Sometimes 
it  mews  or  yawls  like  a  cat,  and  in  a  most  disagreeable 
manner,  which  greatly  detracts  from  its  proper  estima- 
tion; because  all  do  not  know  that  at  times  it  sends  forth 
the  sweetest  music.  The  nest  is  generally  built  in  low 
bushes,  and  composed  of  dry  twigs  and  grass  without, 


INSESSORES:    LIOTRICHID^E.  19 1 

fibrous  roots  within;  eggs  four  to  six,  glossy  greenish- 
blue.  Two  broods  are  raised  in  a  season. 

The  Genus  Oreoscoptes  comprises  the  Mountain  Mock- 
ing-Bird,  O.  montanus,  Baird,  of  Western  North  Amer- 
ica, which  is  eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  nearly  five 
inches,  and  with  the  bill  longer  and  more  slender  than  in 
Mimus. 

The  Genus  Harporhynchus  has  the  bill  as  long  as  or 
longer  than  the  head,  no  notch,  the  wings  short,  and  tail 
long. 

The  California  Thrush,  H.  redivivus,  Cab.,  of  Califor- 
nia, is  eleven  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  over  four 
inches,  the  bill  much  decurved  and  longer  than  the  head. 
The  color  above  brownish  olive,  beneath  pale  cinnamon, 
deepening  into  rufous  on  the  under  tail-coverts. 

Five  additional  species  of  this  genus  are  found  in  Mex- 
ico and  California. 

The  Brown  Thrush,  H.  rufus,  Cab.,  of  North  America 
east  of  the  Missouri,  is  over  eleven  inches  long,  the  wing 
over  four  inches  ;  the  color  above  light  cinnamon-red,  be- 
neath pale  rufous-white,  with  longitudinal  streaks  of  dark 
brown.  In  the  pleasant  spring  mornings,  this  bird  utters 
the  sweetest  melodies  from  the  topmost  twigs  of  some 
isolated  tree.  Later  in  the  day,  and  at  all  times  late  in 
the  season,  it  prefers  low  thick  bushes.  Its  flight  is  low 
and  -heavy,  and  continued  only  a  few  rods  at. a  time. 
The  nest  is  made  in  a  clump  of  low  bushes  a  few  feet 
from  the  ground ;  the  eggs  four  to  six,  dull  buff  thickly 
sprinkled  with  dots  of  brown. 

The  Genus  Campy lorhynchus  comprises  C.  brunneica- 
pillus,  Gray,  Southwestern  North  America,  which  is  eight 
inches  long,  the  wing  nearly  three  and  a  half  inches,  and 
is  the  largest  Wren  in  the  United  States. 

The  Genus  Catherpes  comprises  the  White-throated 
Wren,  C.  mexicanus,  Baird,  of  the  Rio  Grande  region, 


192  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

which  is  six  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  a 
half  inches. 

The  Genus  Salpinctes  comprises  the  Rock  Wren,  S. 
obsoletus,  Cab.,  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  is  five 
and  seven  tenths  inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  three 
inches. 

The  Genus  Thryothorus  has  the  bill  about  as  long  as 
the  head,  nearly  straight  to  the  tip,  which  is  abruptly  de- 
curved.  The  wings  are  about  equal  to  the  tail,  which  is 
arched  and  nearly  even,  and  the  tarsus  longer  than  the 
middle  toe. 

The  Great  Carolina  Wren,  T.  ludoviciamis,  Bonap.,  of 
the  United  States  north  to  Pennsylvania  and  west  to  the 
Missouri,  is  six  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  six  tenths 
inches,  the  color  reddish  brown  above,  beneath  pale  yel- 
lowish-rusty. 

Berlandier's  Wren,  T.  Berlandierii,  Couch,  of  Mexico, 
closely  resembles  the  preceding,  but  is  smaller. 

Bewick's  Wren,  T.  Bewickii,  Bonap.,  of  North  America, 
is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  a  quarter 
inches;  the  color  rufous  brown  above,  plumbeous  white 
below,  wings  and  innermost  tail-feathers  barred  with 
dusky  ;  the  remaining  tail-feathers  mostly  black,  marked 
with  white. 

The  Genus  Cistothorus  has  the  tail  much  graduated 
and  shorter  than  the  wings,  and  the  feet  stout. 

The  Long-billed  Marsh  Wren,  C.  palustris,  Cab.,  of 
North  America,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
over  two  inches  ;  the  upper  parts  dull  reddish  brown  ; 
the  crown,  interscapular  region,  outer  surface  of  tertials, 
and  tail  feathers,  almost  black  ;  the  under  parts  and 
streak  over  the  eye  white.  This  species  lives  among 
the  rank  vegetation  growing  around  inlets  to  the  sea. 
Here  it  builds  its  nest,  and  lays  six  or  more  eggs,  of  a 
deep  chocolate  color. 


INSESSORES:   LIOTRICHHXE.  193 

The  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren,  C.  stellaris,  Cab.,  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Platte  River,  is  four  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  one  inch  and  three  fourths ;  the 
bill  is  scarcely  half  the  length  of  the  head  ;  the  hind  part 
of  the  crown,  back,  and  rump,  almost  black,  streaked  with 
white ;  under  parts  white ;  the  sides,  upper  part  of  the 
breast,  and  under  tail-coverts,  reddish  brown.  This  spe- 
cies lives  in  marshy  fresh-water  meadows,  and  is  very 
shy.  When  uttering  its  lively  song,  it  stands  on  a  tuft  of 
sedge  or  a  low  bush,  and  its  head  and  tail  are  alternately 
depressed  and  elevated  as  if  the  body  were  moving  on  a 
pivot. 

The  Genus  Troglodytes  has  the  bill  nearly  as  long  as 
the  head,  compressed,  decurved  ;  and  the  wings  about 
equal  to  the  tail. 

The  House  Wren,  T.  cedon,  Vieill.,  of  North  America 
east  of  the  Missouri,  is  nearly  five  inches  long,  the  wing 
over  two  inches ;  the  color  above  reddish  brown,  barred 
with  dusky,  under  parts  brownish  gray.  This  wren  de- 
lights in  being  near  the  habitations  of  man,  and  builds 
its  nest  in  any  hole  it  finds  in  the  timbers  or  walls  of  our 
buildings,  or  in  a  hollow  tree  of  the  orchard  or  garden. 
The  nest  is  formed  of  dry  twigs  and  grasses,  and  lined 
with  soft  materials ;  eggs  five  or  six,  pale  reddish. 

Parkman's  Wren,  T.  Parkmanni,  Aud.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  'very  similar  to  the  preceding,  but 
the  colors  are  grayer. 

The  Wood  Wren,  T.  americanus,  Aud.,  of  Eastern 
United  States,  is  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  inches,  and  is  very  similar  to  T.  adon ;  but  the  bill 
is  shorter,  tail  more  graduated,  colors  darker,  and  there 
is  no  light  line  over  the  eye. 

The  Winter  Wren,  T.  hy emails,  Vieill.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  four  inches  long,  the  wing  over  one  inch  and  a  half; 
the  upper  parts  reddish  brown,  marked  with  transverse 


VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

Fig.  us-  bars  of  dusky  and  light,  except  on 

the  head  and  upper  part  of  the 
back ;  beneath  pale  reddish-brown, 
more  or  less  spotted  and  barred.  The 
scapulars,  wing  coverts,  and  outer  web 
of  primaries  are  spotted  with  white. 
The  motions  of  the  Winter  Wren  are 
exceedingly  varied,  rapid,  and  precise. 
winter  wren,  j^-  mav  be  seen  in  a  score  of  atti- 

T.  hyemalis,  Vieill.  .  _         _ 

tudes  in  the  course  oi  a  tew  minutes. 
Now  it  is  on  one  side  of  a  brush-heap,  and  in  a  moment 
it  has  passed  through  and  appears  on  the  other.  It 
reaches  the  upper  branches  of  a  small  tree  by  hopping 
from  twig  to  twig,  and  in  the  course  of  its  passage  pre- 
sents each  side  in  turn  to  you  a  dozen  times  ;  and  when 
at  the  top  it  utters  a  delicate  melody,  and  then  dashes 
headlong,  and  is  out  of  sight  in  a  moment.  Audubon 
says  that  the  song  of  the  Winter  Wren  excels  that  of  any 
other  bird  of  its  size  with  which  he  is  acquainted.  The 
nest  is  long  and  bag-like,  and  attached  to  a  rock  or  tree 
near  the  ground.  It  is  made  of  moss  and  lichens,  and 
lined  with  hair  and  feathers.  The  eggs  are  six  or  more, 
of  the  most  delicate  rose-color,  dotted  with  reddish  brown. 

The  Genus  Chamcea  comprises  the  Ground  Tit,  C.  fas- 
data,  Gambel,  of  California,  which  is  six  inches  long  ;  the 
upper  parts  olivaceous  brown,  the  lower  pale  brownish- 
cinnamon. 

CERTHIAD.E,  OR  CREEPER  FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises birds  with  the  bill  slender,  as  long  or  longer  than 
the  head,  without  a  notch  ;  and  the  entire  basal  joint  of 
the  middle  toe  united  to  the  lateral  ones. 

The  Genus  Certhia  has  the  bill  as  long  as  the  head, 
and  much  compressed  and  decurved  from  the  base. 

The  American  Creeper,  C.  americana,  Bonap.,  of  North 
America,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  over 


INSESSORES:    CERTHIADjE. 


195 


two  and  a  half  inches ;  the  color  above 
dark  brown,  each  feather  streaked  cen- 
trally with  whitish,  and  the  rump  rusty ; 
the  under  parts,  and  a  streak  over  the  eye, 
white;  and  the  wings  with  a  bar  of  red- 
dish white  across  both  webs. 

The  Genus  Sitta  has  the  bill  subulate, 
acutely  pointed,  compressed,  and  about  as 
long  as  the  head. 

The  White-bellied  Nuthatch,  5.  caroli- 
nensis,  -Cm.,  of  North  America  east  of  the 
Central  Plains,  is  six  inches  long,  the  wing  Amcrican  Creeper, 

C.  antericana, 

three  inches  and  three  quarters  ;  the  color 
ashy  blue  above,  the  under  parts  Fig.  n5. 

white,  top  of  the  head  and  neck 
black.  It  moves  along  trunks 
and  branches  with  the  greatest 
facility,  and  at  a  little  distance 
is  easily  mistaken  by  the  care- 
less observer  for  a  little  wood- 
pecker. The  nest  is  made  in 
a  hole  excavated  in  a  decayed 
trunk  or  branch;  eggs  five  or 
six,  dull  white,  spotted  with  white  at  the  larger  end. 

The  Slender-billed  Nuthatch,  5.  aculeata,  Cass.,  of  the 
Pacific  coast  and  eastward,  is  precisely  similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding, but  has  the  bill  more  slender. 

The  Red-bellied  Nuthatch,  5.  canadensis,  Linn.,  of 
North  America,  is  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  two  thirds  inches  ;  the  color  ashy  blue  above,  top 
of  the  head  black,  under  parts  brownish  rusty.  The  nest 
is  made  in  a  low  stump  ;  eggs  four,  white,  rose-tinged, 
and  sprinkled  with  reddish  dots.  Like  other  species  of 
its  genus,  the  Red-bellied  Nuthatch  at  night  attaches  its 
feet  to  the  bark,  and  sleeps  with  its  head  downwards. 


White-bellied  Nuthatch, 
C.  carolinensis,  Gm. 


196  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Brown-headed  Nuthatch,  >S.  pusilla,  Lath.,  of  the 
South  Atlantic  States,  is  four  inches  long,  the  wing  two 
and  a  half  inches ;  the  color  above  ashy  blue,  top  of  the 
head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  light  brown,  divided  on 
the  nape  by  white  ;  beneath,  dingy  white. 

The  California  Nuthatch,  5.  pygmtza,  Vigors,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  about  four  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  four  tenths  inches,  and  closely  resembles  the 
preceding. 

PARID.E,  OR  TITMOUSE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  which  have  the  bill  short,  straight,  and  con- 
ical, the  wings  short,  and  tail  long. 

The  Genus  Polioptila  has  the  bill  depressed  at  base, 
nearly  as  long  as  the  head,  notched  at  the  tip,  and  with 
rictal  bristles.  The  members  of  this  genus  are  lead-color 
above,  white  beneath. 

The  Blue-gray  Gnat-catcher,  P.  ccsrulea,  Sclat,  of 
North  America,  is  four  and  three  tenths  inches  long, 
the  wing  less  than  two  and  a  quarter  inches,  and  is 
distinguished  by  the  two  outer  tail-feathers,  which,  are 
entirely  white,  and  a  narrow  black  frontal  line  which 
extends  back  over  the  eye. 

The  Western  Gnat-catcher,  P.  plumbea,  Baird,  of  the 
valley  of  Colorado,  has  no  black  on  the  forehead,  but  a 
stripe  over  the  eye  ;  and  the  outer  web  only  of  the  outer 
tail-feather  is  white. 

The  Black-tailed  Gnat-catcher,  P.  melanura,  Lawr.,  of 
the  Rio  Grande  region,  has  the  entire  top  of  the  head 
black,  and  the  edge  only  of  the  outer  tail-feather  white. 

The  Genus  Lophophanes  has  the  crown  with  a  con- 
spicuous crest. 

The  Tufted  Titmouse,  L.  bicolor,  Bonap.,  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches 
long,  the  wing  less  than  three  and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the 
color  above  ashy  black,  forehead  black,  beneath  dull 
whitish. 


INSESSORES  I    PARID.E.  197 

The  Black-crested  Tit,  L.  atricristatus,  Cass.,  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
wing  three  inches  ;  the  color  above  plumbeous,  crest 
long,  pointed,  and  black. 

The  Gray  Titmouse,  L.  inornatus,  Cass.,  of  California, 
is  five  inches  long,  the  wing  over  two  and  a  half  inches, 
crest  elongated  ;  the  color  above  olivaceous  ashy,  beneath 
whitish. 

Wollweber's  Titmouse,  L.  Wollweberi,  Bonap.,  of  South- 
ern Rocky  Mountains,  is  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  the 
wing  two  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Parus  has  the  head  without  a  crest,  body 
and  head  stout,  the  crown  and  throat  black. 

The  Long-tailed  Chickadee,  P.  septentrionalis,  Harris, 
from  the  Missouri  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  five  and 
a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  two  and  seven  tenths 
inches. 

The  Black-cap  Titmouse,  or  Chickadee,  P.  atricapil- 
luSj  Linn.,  of  Eastern  North  America,  is  five  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  a  half  inches,  the  Fig.  u6. 

back  brownish  ashy,  under  parts  whitish, 
top  of  the  head  and  throat  black,  and 
the  sides  of  the  head  between  white. 
The  nest  is  generally  made  in  a  hole  in 
a  stump ;  the  eggs  rarely  exceed  eight  in 
number,  the  color  white  slightly  dotted 
and  marked  with  light  reddish.  Two 
broods  are  raised  in  a  season.  P. at 

The  Western  Titmouse,  P.  occidentalis,  Baird,  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  closely  resembles  the  preceding. 

The  Mexican  Titmouse,  P.  meridionalis,  Sclat,  of  East- 
ern Mexico,  is  five  inches  long,  and  the  wing  two  and 
six  tenths  inches. 

The  Carolina  Titmouse,  P.  carolinensis,  Aud.,  of  the 
Southern  Atlantic  States,  is  very  similar  to  P.  atricapillus, 
but  is  smaller. 


198  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Mountain  Titmouse,  P.  montanus,  Gambel,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and 
six  tenths  inches ;  the  head  and  neck  above,  a  line  through 
the  eye,  and  the  under  part  of  the  head  and  the  throat, 
glossy  black ;  the  forehead  and  a  line  over  the  eye,  and 
one  below  it,  white  ;  the  other  parts  ashy. 

The  Chestnut-backed  Tit,  P.  rufescens,  Towns.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  four  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  the  wing,  less  than  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  is 
readily  distinguished  by  the  dark  brownish-chestnut  of 
the  back  and  sides. 

The  Hudsonian  Titmouse,  P.  hudsonicus,  Forster,  of 
Northeastern  North  America,  is  five  inches  long,  the 
wing  two  and  four  tenths  inches  ;  the  color  yellowish 
olive-brown,  under  parts  white. 

The  Genus  Psaltriparus  has  the  bill  very  small  and 
short,  the  outline  much  curved  for  its  terminal  half, 
the  tail  long  and  slender  and  much  graduated,  tarsi 
longer  than  the  middle  toe,  and  no  black  on  the  crown 
or  throat. 

The  Black-cheeked  Tit,  P.  melanotus,  Bonap.,  of  the 
Rio  Grande  region,  is  four  inches  long,  the  wing  one  inch 
and  nine  tenths,  and  is  distinguished  by  a  black  patch  on 
each  cheek. 

The  Least  Tit,  P.  minimus,  Bonap.,  of  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  United  States,  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  preceding ; 
the  color  olivaceous  cinereous. 

The  Lead-colored  Tit,  P.  plumbeus,  Baird,  of  the  South- 
ern Rocky  Mountains,  is  four  and  one  fifth  inches  long, 
the  wing  less  than  two  and  a  quarter  inches. 

The  Genus  Paroides  comprises  the  Verdin,  P.flaviceps, 
Baird,  of  Texas,  which  is  four  and  a  half  inches  long,  the 
wing  less  than  two  and  a  quarter  inches;  and  distin- 
guished from  all  the  foregoing  in  the  greater  length  of 
the  quills ;  the  color  above  cinereous,  head  yellow,  under 
parts  brownish  white. 


INSESSORES  :   ALAUDID.E. 


199 


ALAUDID.E,  OR  SKYLARK  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  with  a  short  conical  bill,  the  first  primary  very 
short  or  wanting,  tertiaries  greatly  elongated  beyond  the 
secondaries,  tarsi  scutellate  before  and  behind,  and  the 
hind  claw  very  long  and  nearly  straight. 

The  Genus  Eremophila  has  the  first  primary  wanting, 
and  the  nostrils  circular  and  concealed  by  a  dense  tuft  of 
feathers. 

The  Skylark  or  Shore  Lark,  E.  cornuta,  Boie,  of  the 
plains  and  prairies  of  North  America  and  in  the  Atlantic 
States  in  winter,  is  seven  and  three  quarters  inches  long, 
the  wing  four  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  color  above  pinkish 
brown,  the  feathers  of  the  back  marked  with  dusky ;  a 
band  across  the  crown  and  running  back  along  the  lateral 
tufts,  a  crescentic  patch  from  the  bill  below  the  eye  and 
along  the  side  of  the  head,  and  a  pectoral  crescent,  black  ; 
the  frontal  band  and  under  parts  white  ;  chin  and  throat 
yellow.  It  sings  sweetly  while  on  the  wing,  but  its  song 
is  short.  It  rises  obliquely  from  the  ground  for  about 
forty  yards,  be- 
gins and  ends 
its  song,  then 
performs  a  few 
evolutions  and 
returns  to  the 
ground,  where 
it  also  sings,  but 
less  frequently, 
and  with  less 
fulness.  The 
nest  is  built  on 
the  ground ;  the  eggs  are  four  or  five,  grayish,  with  nu- 
merous pale-blue  and  brown  spots. 

The  Skylark  of  Europe,  E.  arvensis,  is  brown  above, 
whitish  beneath,  and  spotted  with  deep  brown.  Next  to 


Fig.  117. 


Skylark,  E.  cornuta,  Boie. 


2OO  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

the  nightingale,  this  is  the  sweetest  singer  in  Europe. 
It  rises  vertically,  and  when  rising  or  descending  utters 
its  varied  and  powerful  song. 

FRINGILLIDYE,  OR  FINCH  AND  SPARROW  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  birds  with  a  short,  robust,  conical  bill, 
nine  primaries,  tarsi  scutellate  anteriorly,  the  two  sides 
with  undivided  plates  meeting  behind,  forming  a  sharp 
ridge.  This  family  comprises  all  the  birds  known  as 
Grosbeaks,  Finches,  Buntings,  Crossbills,  Sparrows,  and 
the  like.  Baird  divides  the  family  into  four  groups. 

The  first  group  comprises  those  which  have  the  bill 
variable,  very  large  to  quite  small,  the  base  of  the  up- 
per mandible  with  a  closely  pressed  fringe  of  bristly 
feathers  concealing  the  nostrils  ;  the  wings  long,  pointed, 
a  half  to  a  third  longer  than  the  forked  or  emarginate 
tail ;  and  the  tarsi  short. 

The  Genus  Hesperiphona  has  the  bill  enormously  large. 

The  Evening  Grosbeak,  H.  vespertina,  Bonap.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  seven  and  three  tenths  inches  long, 
the  wing  four  and  three  tenths  inches,  the  forward  half 
of  the  body  yellowish  olive,  shading  into  yellow  on  the 
rump  and  under  tail-coverts ;  the  crown,  wings,  upper 
tail-coverts,  and  tail,  black;  frontal  band  yellow. 

The  Genus  Pinicola  has  the  bill  much  smaller  than 
Hesperiphona,  the  culmen  much  curved,  and  tail  nearly 
even. 

The  Pine  Grosbeak,  P.  canadensis,  Cab.,  of  Arctic 
America  and  southward  into  the  United  States  in  winter, 
is  eight  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  a  half 
inches  ;  the  general  color  carmine-red,  wings  marked  with 
white,  bill  and  legs  black.  The  female  is  brownish  above, 
greenish  yellow  beneath  ;  the  top  of  the  head,  rump,  and 
upper  tail-coverts  brownish  gamboge-yellow. 

The  Genus  Carpodacus  has  the  bill  more  or  less  curved 
above,  and  the  tail  moderately  forked. 


INSESSORES  :   FRINGILLID.E. 


201 


Purple  Finch, 
C.  purpureus,  Gray. 


The  Purple  Finch,  C.purpureus,  Gray, 
of  North  America  east  of  the  Central 
Plains,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long, 
the  wing  three  and  a  third  inches,  the 
color  crimson ;  belly  and  under  tail- 
coverts  white  ;  there  are  two  reddish 
bands  across  the  wings.  The  female 
is  olivaceous  brown,  white  beneath, 
the  feathers  streaked  with  brown.  The 
song  of  the  Purple  Finch  is  prolonged 
and  sweet.  The  nest  is  built  in  a  tree 
a  few  feet  from  the  ground ;  the  eggs 
are  four,  bright  emerald-green. 

The  Western  Purple  Finch,  C.  calif ornicus,  Baird,  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  is  rather  smaller  than  the  preceding, 
and  the  purple  of  the  head  and  rump  much  darker. 

Cassin's  Purple  Finch,  C.  Cassmii,  Baird,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  is  larger  than  C.  purpureus. 

The  House  Finch,  C.  frontalis,  Gray,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Pacific,  is  five  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  the  wing  three  and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the  forehead, 
superciliary  stripe,  throat,  and  upper  part  of  the  breast, 
crimson  ;  the  remaining  upper  parts  grayish  brown,  and 
the  under  parts  whitish. 

The  Genus  Chrysomitris  has  the  bill  nearly  straight, 
and  the  tail  quite  deeply  forked  ;  the  general  colors  yel- 
low and  black. 

The  Black-headed  Goldfinch,  C.  magellanica,  Bonap.,  of 
South  America  and  accidental  in  the  United  States,  is  four 
and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  three  quarters 
inches  ;  the  head  is  black  all  round. 

Yarrell's  Goldfinch,  C.  Yarrelli,  Bonap.,  of  California 
and  Mexico,  is  four  inches  long,  with  the  crown  black. 

The  Yellow-Bird  or  Thistle-Bird,  C.  tristis,  Bonap.,  of 
North  America,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
9* 


2O2  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

wing  three  inches  ;  the  color  gamboge -yellow,  cro'wn  and 
wings  black,  tail  and  wings  marked  with  white.  The 
female  is  yellowish  brown,  with  no  black  upon  the  head. 
The  nest  is  very  handsome,  made  of  lichens  and  fastened 
to  a  twig ;  eggs  four  to  six,  white  tinged  with  bluish,  and 
spotted  with  reddish  brown  at  the  larger  end. 

The  Arkansas  Finch,  C.  psaltria,  Bonap.,  of  the  South- 
ern Rocky  Mountains  to  the  coast  of  California,  is  four 
and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  two  fifths 
inches,  the  upper  parts  olive  green,  the  head,  wings,  and 
tail  black  ;  beneath,  bright  yellow. 

The  Black  Goldfinch,  C.  mexicana,  Bonap.,  of  Mexico 
near  the  Rio  Grande,  is  over  four  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  a  quarter  inches. 

Lawrence's  Goldfinch,  C.  Lawrencii,  Bonap.,  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  four  and  seven  tenths  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  three  quarters  inches  ;  the  crown,  sides  of  the 
head  anterior  .to  the  eye,  chin,  and  throat,  black ;  sides 
of  the  head  and  neck,  upper  part  of  the  neck,  back,  and 
upper  tail-coverts,  ashy  ;  under  parts  greenish  yellow. 

The  Pine  Finch,  C.  pinus,  Bonap.,  of  North  America, 
is  four  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  the  wing  three 
inches  ;  olive  brownish  above,  beneath  whitish,  every 
feather  streaked  with  dusky ;  the  concealed  bases  of 
tail  feathers  and  quills  and  their  inner  edges  sulphur- 
yellow  ;  outer  edges  yellowish  green  ;  two  brownish-white 
bands  upon  the  wings,  and  the  tail  much  forked. 

The  Genus  Pyrrhula  comprises  the  Bulfinches  of  the 
Eastern  hemisphere,  which  have  the  bill  very  large  and 
rounded.  They  are  easily  tamed,  and  sing  well. 

The  Genus  Curvirostra  has  the  points  of  the  mandibles 
greatly  curved  and  overlapping.  Crossbills  live  in  flocks ; 
and  feed  mainly  upon  seeds  contained  in  the  cones  of 
pines  and  those  of  other  allied  trees,  which,  by  the  aid 
of  their  peculiar  bill,  they  are  able  to  secure  with  won- 
derful facility. 


INSESSORES:    FRINGILLIDjE.  2O3 

The  Red  Crossbill,  C.  americana,  Wils.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  six  inches  long,  the  wing  over  three  and  a  third 
inches  ;  the  color  dull  red,  the  wings  and  tail  dark 
blackish-brown.  The  female  is  dull  greenish-olive,  rump 
and  crown  bright  greenish-yellow  ;  beneath  grayish. 

The  'White-winged  Crossbill, 
C.  leucoptera,  Wils.,  of  North 
America,  is  six  and  a  quarter 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  and 
a  half  inches,  and  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  white  bands 
upon  the  wings. 

The  Genus  jEgiothus  has  the 
bill  short  and  acutely  conical, 
wings  long,  the  second  quill 
somewhat  longer  than  the  first 

...          .  White-winged  Crossbill, 

and  third,  and  the  tail  deeply  c.  &««^«w,  wiis. 


forked  ;  colors  reddish. 

The  Lesser  Red  Poll,  AL.  linaria,  Cab.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  over  three 
inches  ;  the  color  above  light  yellowish,  each  feather 
streaked  with  dark  brown,  the  crown  crimson,  upper 
part  of  the  breast  and  sides  of  the  body  tinged  with 
light  crimson  ;  the  most  of  the  remaining  under  parts 
white.  Audubon  says  few  birds  exhibit  a  more  affec- 
tionate disposition  than  this;  and  he  enjoyed  the  pleas- 
ure of  seeing  several  on  a  twig  feeding  each  other  by 
passing  a  seed  from  bill  to  bill,  and  one  individual  actu- 
ally receiving  food  from  two  of  his  companions  at  the 
same  time. 

The  Mealy  Red  Poll,  ^*E.  canescens.  Cab.,  of  Greenland, 
is  six  inches  long,  and  is  further  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  by  its  white  rump. 

The  Genus  Leticosticte  has  the  bill  obtusely  conical, 
and  a  conspicuous  ridge  on  the  side  of  the  lower  man- 
dible. 


2O4  >  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

The  Gray-crowned  Finch,  L.  tephrocotis,  Sw.,  of  the 
Northern  Rocky  Mountains,  is  over  seven  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  four  and  three  tenths  inches. 

The  Genus  Plectrophanes  has  the  bill  always  more  or 
less  curved  or  blunted,  the  wings  one  half  longer  than 
the  tail,  the  hind  claw  much  the  largest ;  colors  black 
and  white. 

The  Snow-Bunting,  P.  nivalis,  Meyer,  of  Northern 
North  America  and  south  into  the  United  States  in 
winter,  is  six  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  the  wing 
over  four  and  one  third  inches ;  the  colors  in  full  plumage 
black  and  white  ;  in  winter,  white  beneath,  head  and 
rump  yellowish  brown,  back  brown.  Snow-Buntings 
move  in  flocks,  and  keep  mainly  in  open  fields. 

The  Lapland  Longspur,  P.  lapponicus,  Selby,  of  North- 
ern North  America,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
wing  nearly  four  inches  ;  the  head  all  round  and  extend- 
ing to  the  breast  black ;  the  sides  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  neck  and  under  parts  white  ;  a  chestnut  collar  on  the 
back  of  the  neck  ;  and  the  remaining  upper  parts  brown- 
ish yellow  streaked  with  brown. 

Smith's  Bunting,  P.  pictus,  Sw.,  of  Illinois  in  winter 
and  northward  in  summer,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long, 
the  wing  three  and  a  half  inches,  and  is  distinguished 
from  all  the  preceding  by  the  flesh-colored  legs. 

The  Chestnut-collared  Bunting,  P.  ornatus,  Towns.,  of 
the  Upper  Missouri,  is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
wing  three  and  one  fifth  inches,  and  is  distinguished  by  a 
chestnut  band  on  the  neck. 

The  Black-shouldered  Longspur,  P.  melanomus,  Baird, 
of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  closely  re- 
sembles the  preceding. 

Maccown's  Longspur,  P.  Maccownii,  Lawr.,  of  the  east- 
ern slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  five  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  over  three  and  a  half  inches,  and 
is  distinguished  by  its  large  and  stout  bill. 


INSESSORES 

The  second  group  embraces  all  the  plain  sparrow-lik( 
birds  marked  with  longitudinal  stripes.  The  bill  is  small 
and  conical,  tarsi  lengthened,  and  the  lateral  claws  never 
reaching  beyond  the  base  of  the  middle  claw. 

The  Genus  Cetitronyx  has  the  bill  elongated,  the  wings 
reaching  beyond  the  middle  of  the  tail,,  tarsi  elongated, 
the  hind  toe  large  and  curved. 

Baird's  Bunting,  C.  /fo/nft'vBaird,  of  the  Yellowstone 
region,  is  four  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  the  wing 
two  and  four  fifths  inches. 

The  Genus  Passerculus  has  the  tarsus  about  equal  to 
the  middle  toe,  the  lateral  toes  about  equal,  the  wing 
reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  tail,  the  first  primary  long- 
est, the  tertiaries  equal  to  the  primaries ;  the  tail  is  emar- 
ginate  and  slightly  rounded,  and  the  feathers  acute. 

The  Savannah  Sparrow,  P.  savanna,  Bonap.,  of  N,orth 
America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  seven  tenths  inches  ;  the  upper 
parts  streaked  with  dark  brown,  the  crown  with  a  median 
stripe  of  yellowish  gray ;  a  superciliary  stripe,  eyelids, 
and  edge  of  elbow,  yellow ;  the  fore  part  of  the  breast 
streaked,  and  the  rest  of  the  under  parts  mainly  white. 
It  builds  its  nest  on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  a  tuft  of 
grass  or  low  bush  ;  eggs  four  to  six,  pale  bluish,  softly 
mottled  with  purplish  brown. 

The  Nootka  Sparrow,  P.  sandwichensis,  Baird,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  closely  resembles  the  preceding. 

The  Spotted  Sparrow,  P.  anthinus,  Bonap.,  of  the  coast 
of  California,  is  similar  to  P.  savanna,  but  is  only  five 
inches  long. 

The  Lark  Sparrow,  P.  alandinus,  Bonap.,  of  California 
to  Mexico,  differs  from  P.  savanna  in  being  rather  smaller, 
and  in  paler  colors. 

The  Beaked  Sparrow,  P.  rostratus,  Baird,  of  the  coast 
of  California,  is  distinguished  from  all  the  preceding  of 
its  genus  by  its  longer  bill. 


2o6  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Pocecetes  has  the  bill  rather  large,  wings 
long  and  pointed,  the  second  and  third  quills  longest, 
tail  short,  forked,  stiff,  and  its  feathers  acute. 

The  Grass  Finch,  or  Bay-winged  Bunting,  P.  grami- 
neus,  Baird,  of  the  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  three 
and  one  tenth  inches ;  above  yellowish  brown,  the  feath- 
ers streaked  abruptly  with  dark  brown  ;  beneath  yellowish 
white,  the  breast,  sides  of  neck,  and  body  streaked  with 
brown,  and  the  wings  with  the  shoulder  light  chestnut- 
brown.  The  Bay-winged  Bunting  sings  sweetly,  and,  at 
times,  for  a  half-hour  without  changing  its  place.  Its 
nest  is  built  in  the  grass,  and  partly  sunk  in  the  ground ; 
the  eggs  four  to  six,  bluish  white,  with  undefined  blotches 
of  pale  reddish-brown. 

The  Genus  Coturniculus  has  the  bill  very  large  and 
stout,  tarsus  longer  than  the  middle  toe,  wings  short  and 
rounded,  tail  short,  narrow,  graduated,  but  slightly  emar- 
ginate,  the  feathers  lanceolate  and  acute,  but  not  stiffened. 

The  Yellow-winged  Sparrow,  C.  passerimis,  Bonap.,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Central  Plains,  is  about  five 
inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  two  fifths  inches  ;  the  feath- 
ers of  the  upper  parts  brownish  rufous,  margined  narrowly 
with  ash  ;  the  crown  blackish  with  a  central  and  super- 
ciliary stripe  of  yellowish  tinged  with  brown,  the  bend  of 
the  wing  bright  yellow,  the  quill  and  tail-feathers  edged 
with  whitish.  The  lower  parts  are  brownish  yellow, 
nearly  white  on  the  middle  of  the  belly  ;  the  feathers  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  breast  and  sides  of  the  body  with 
darker  centres.  Its  nest  is  upon  the  ground,  made  of 
grass,  and  lined  with  fibrous  roots  and  hair ;  eggs  dingy 
white  sprinkled  with  brown  spots. 

Henslow's  Bunting,  C.  Henslowi,  Bonap.,  of  the  Eastern 
United  States  as  far  north  as  Washington,  and  westward, 
is  five  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  two 


INSESSORES  I   FRINGILLHXE.  2O/ 

and  a  quarter  inches ;  the  upper  parts  yellowish  brown, 
the  crown  with  a  broad  black  spotted  stripe  on  each  side, 
these  spots  continuing  down  to  the  back;  two  black 
maxillary  stripes  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  an  obscure 
crescent  of  the  same  color  behind  the  auriculars ;  under 
parts  light  brownish-yellow,  the  upper  breast  and  sides 
streaked  with  black ;  edge  of  the  wing  yellow,  wings  and 
tail  strongly  tinged  with  chestnut. 

Leconte's  Bunting,  C.  Lecontii,  Bonap.,  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, is  about  four  and  one  third  inches  long,  the  wing 
over  two  inches. 

The  Genus  Ammodromus  has  the  bill  very  long,  slen- 
der, attenuated,  considerably  curved  towards  the  tip 
above  ;  the  wings  short  and  rounded,  reaching  only  to 
the  base  of  the  tail;  the  latter  is  short  and  graduated, 
each  feather  stiffened,  lanceolate,  and  acute ;  the  legs 
and  toes  very  long,  reaching  beyond  the  tip  of  the  tail. 

The  Sharp-tailed  Finch,  A.  caudacutus,  Sw.,  of  the 
United  States  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  five  inches  long, 
the  wing  about  two  and  three  tenths  inches  ;  the  upper 
parts  brownish  olivaceous,  the  head  with  black  streaks 
upon  the  sides,  and  a  central  stripe  of  ashy  ;  a  supercili- 
ary and  maxillary  stripe  and  a  band  across  the  breast 
buff-yellow ;  a  brown  stripe  on  the  side  of  the  throat, 
the  upper  part  of  the  breast  and  sides  of  the  body  streaked 
with  black.  The  rest  of  the  under  parts  are  white,  and 
the  edge  of  the  wing  yellowish  white.  The  nest  is  on 
the  ground,  near  high-water-mark ;  eggs  four  to  six,  dull 
white  dotted  with  light  brown. 

The  Seaside  Finch,  A.  maritimus,  Sw.,  of  the  United 
States  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  about  six  inches  long,  the 
wing  two  and  a  half  inches  ;  olivaceous  brown  above,  be- 
neath white,  the  breast  and  sides  yellowish  brown  ;  the 
sides  of  the  head  and  body,  a  medial  line  on  the  head,  and 
indistinct  streaks  on  the  breast,  ashy  brown ;  the  super- 


208  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

ciliary  stripe  is  bright  yellow  anterior  to  the  eye,  the  re- 
mainder plumbeous ;  the  edge  of  the  wing  yellow,  and  the 
bill  blue.  This  bird  may  be  seen,  at  any  hour  of  the  day 
during  spring  and  early  summer,  upon  the  tops  of  tall 
plants  that  grow  by  the  margin  of  tide-water,  there  ut- 
tering the  few  notes  that  compose  its  song.  The  nest  is 
made  of  coarse  grass  without  and  fine  within  ;  eggs  four 
to  six,  grayish  white  freckled  with  brown. 

Samuel's  Finch,  A.  Samuelis,  Baird,  of  California,  is 
five  inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  two  and  a  quarter 
inches. 

The  Genus  Chondestes  comprises  the  Lark  Finch,  C. 
grammaca,  Bonap.,  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  the 
Pacific  coast.  It  is  six  inches  long,  the  wing  about 
three  and  one  third  inches ;  the  upper  parts  grayish 
brown,  the  hood  chestnut  with  a  median  and  superciliary 
stripe  of  dingy  white  ;  the  under  parts  white ;  a  round 
spot  on  the  breast,  a  maxillary  stripe,  and  a  short  line 
from  the  bill  to  the  eye,  black.  The  tail  is  dark  brown, 
broadly  tipped  with  white. 

The  Genus  Zonotrichia  has  the  bill  conical  and  slightly 
notched,  wings  not  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  moder- 
ately-rounded tail,  the  second  and  third  quills  longest, 
tarsus  longer  than  the  middle  toe,  lateral  toes  about  equal, 
the  hind  toe  longer  than  the  lateral  ones,  the  claws  of 
the  latter  just  reaching  to  the  base  of  the  middle  one. 

The  White-crowned  Sparrow,  Z.  lencophrys,  Sw.,  of  the 
United  States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  over  seven 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the 
head  above,  the  upper  half  of  the  loral  region,  and  a  line 
through  and  behind  the  eye,  black  ;  a  longitudinal  patch 
upon  the  crown,  and  a  line  from  above  the  anterior  cor- 
ner of  the  eye,  the  two  coming  together  on  the  occiput, 
white.  Its  song  consists  of  six  or  seven  notes,  rather 
plaintive,  the  first  of  which  is  loud,  clear,  and  sweet,  the 


INSESSORES:    FRINGILLID.E.  2OQ 

second  broader  but  less  firm,  and  the  rest  gradually  di- 
minishing in  fulness  and  power.  This  song  is  repeated 
at  short  intervals  throughout  the  day.  The  nest  is  made 
upon  the  ground,  beautifully  constructed,  and  found  with 
difficulty ;  the  eggs  five,  light  sea-green,  mottled  towards 
the  larger  end  with  brownish  spots  and  blotches,  and  a 
few  spots  of  lighter  tint  are  dispersed  over  *he  whole. 

Gambel's  Finch,  Z.  Gambellii,  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains to  the  Pacific  coast,  is  almost  precisely  like  the  pre- 
ceding, only  smaller. 

The  Golden-crowned  Sparrow,  Z.  coronata,  Baird,  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  is  seven  inches  long,  the  wing  about 
three  and  one  third  inches  ;  the  top  of  the  head  black ; 
median  stripe  yellow  anteriorly,  and  ashy  posteriorly ; 
the  sides  and  under  parts  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  upper 
part  of  the  breast,  ash-color,  passing  into  whitish  beneath. 

Harris's  Finch,  Z.  querula,  Gamb.,  of  the  Missouri  re- 
gion, is  seven  inches  long,  the  wing  less  than  three  and 
a  half  inches,  and  distinguished  by  having  the  head  all 
round,  the  neck,  and  the  throat,  black. 

The  White-throated  Sparrow,  Z.  albicollis,  Bonap.,  of 
the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  seven  inches 
long,  the  wing  over  three  inches ;  the  crown  with  two 
black  stripes  separated  by  one  of  white,  a  broad  super- 
ciliary stripe  yellow  to  the  middle  of  the  eye  and  white 
behind  it,  a  broad  black  streak  from  behind  the  eye,  the 
chin  white,  upper  part  of  the  breast  dark  ash,  edge  of 
wing  and  axillaries  yellow,  the  back  rufous  brown  streaked 
with  dark  brown,  the  belly  and  two  bands  across  the  wing 
coverts  white. 

The  Genus  Junco  has  the  bill  small  •  and  conical,  the 
wings  reaching  over  the  basal  fourth  of  the  exposed  por- 
tion of  the  tail,  the  tarsus  longer  than  the  middle  toe,  the 
lateral  toes  slightly  unequal,  the  outer  reaching  to  the 
base  of  the  middle  claw,  and  the  tail  slightly  emarginate. 


2io  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Mexican  Junco,  J.  cinerens,  Cab.,  of  Mexico,  is  six 
and  two  fifths  inches  long,  the  wing  over  three  inches. 

The  Oregon  Snow-Bird,  J.  oregonus,  Sclat,  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is 
six  and  a  half  inches  long,  wing  three  inches,  the  head 
and  neck  all  round  sooty  black,  the  interscapular  region 
and  the  wings  dark  rufous  brown,  a  lighter  tint  of  the 
same  on  the  breast  and  below,  the  rump  brownish  ash, 
and  the  outer  two  tail-feathers  white. 

The  Gray-headed  Snow-Bird,  J.  caniceps,  Baird,  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  six  inches  long,  the  wing  about  three 
and  a  quarter  inches. 

The  Black  Snow-Bird,  y.  hy emails,  Sclat.,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  six  and  a  quarter  inches 
long ;  grayish  or  dark  ashy-black,  deepest  before ;  the 
middle  of  the  breast  and  belly,  the  under  tail-coverts, 
and  the  first  and  second  external  tail-feathers  white,  and 
the  third  tail-feather  white  margined  with  black.  These 
birds  appear  in  flocks  in  winter,  and  are  very  tame. 

The  Genus  Poospiza  is  represented  by  only  two  species 
in  the  United  States. 

The  Black-throated  Sparrow,  P.  bilineata,  Sclat.,  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  is  nearly  five  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and 
three  quarters  inches;  the  color  above  ashy  gray,  the 
under  parts  and  superciliary  stripe  white,  the  chin  and 
throat  black. 

Bell's  Finch,  P.  Belli,  Sclat.,  of  Southern  California, 
is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  nearly  three 
inches ;  the  upper  parts  bluish  ash,  under  parts  pure 
white. 

The  Genus  Splzella  is  distinguished  from  Zonotrichia 
by  the  smaller  size,  and  a  longer  and  forked  tail. 

The  Tree  Sparrow,  5.  montlcola,  Baird,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  six  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  three  inches ; 
the  feathers  of  the  back  dark  brown  centrally,  then  rufous, 


INSESSORES:    FRINGILLID.E.  211 

and  edged  with  pale  fulvous ;  the  hood,  and  a  line  from 
behind  the  eye,  chestnut.  The  under  parts  are  whitish, 
with  a  blotch  of  brownish  on  the  breast. 

The  Field  Sparrow,  5.  pusilla,  Bonap.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  one  third  inches  ;  the  bill  red,  the 
crown  continuous  rufous-red,  the  back  similar,  streaked 
with  blackish  ;  the  under  parts  white,  tinged  before  with 
yellowish.  This  sparrow  builds  upon  the  ground  at  the 
foot  of  a  small  bush,  or  on  branches  close  to  the  ground ; 
eggs  four  to  six,  light  ferruginous. 

The  Chipping  Sparrow,  5.  sociaKs,  Bonap.,  of  North 
America,  is  five  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  the  wing 
nearly  three  inches  ;  the  bill  black,  crown  continuous 
chestnut,  the  forehead  black,  separated  in  the  middle  by 
white,  superciliary  stripe  white,  a  black  stripe  through  the 
eye ;  the  rump,  sides  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  back  of 
the  latter,  ashy  ;  and  the  interscapular  space  with  black 
streaks  margined  with  pale  rufous.  The  under  parts 
whitish,  and  two  narrow  white  bands  across  the  wing- 
coverts.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common  birds.  Its 
song  is  six  or  seven  notes,  uttered  with  rapidity.  Its 
nest  is  slender,  formed  of  grasses,  and  lined  with  hair, 
and  placed  upon  an  apple-tree  or  some  low  bush,  but 
never  on  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  four  or  five,  greenish 
blue  marked  with  dark  brown  spots. 

The  Clay-colored  Bunting,  5.  pallida,  Bonap.,  of  the 
Upper  Missouri,  is  four  and  three  quarters  inches  long, 
the  wing  over  two  and  a  half  inches;  brownish  yellow 
above,  the  feathers  of  the  crown  and  back  conspicuously 
streaked  with  blackish  ;  under  parts  whitish. 

Brewer's  Sparrow,  5.  Breweri,  Cass.,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  to  the  Pacific  coast,  is  five  inches  long,  the 
wing  two  and  a  half  inches,  and  closely  resembles  the 
preceding.  • 


212  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

The  Black-chinned  Sparrow,  5.  atrigularis,  Baird,  ol 
Mexico  near  the  Rio  Grande,  is  five  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Melospiza  has  the  bill  conical,  wings  quite 
short  and  rounded,  tail  graduated  and  the  feathers  oval  at 
the  tips,  tertiaries  longer  than  the  secondaries,  the  fourth 
quill  longest.  The  crown  and  back  are  similar  in  color 
and  streaked,  the  lower  parts  thickly  streaked,  and  the 
tail  unspotted. 

Fig.  120.  The  Song-Sparrow,  M.  melo- 

dia,  Baird,  of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
is  six  and  a  half  inches  long, 
the  wing  over  two  and  a  half 
inches ;  the  upper  parts  rufous 
brown  streaked  with  dark 
brown  and  ashy  gray.  The 

Song-Sparrow,  M.  melodia,  Baird.          ^^  ^  ^^  ^  ^  ^^ 

and  superciliary  stripe  of  dull  gray.  The  interscapular 
region  has  the  feathers  dull  brown  in  the  centre,  then 
rufous,  then  grayish  on  the  margin.  There  is  a  light 
maxillary  stripe  bordered  above  and  below  by  one  of 
dark  rufous-brown,  with  a  similar  one  from  behind  the 
eye.  The  under  parts  are  white,  the  breast  and  sides  of 
the  body  streaked  with  dark  rufous,  and  on  the  middle 
of  the  breast  this  color  is  concentrated  into  a  spot.  This 
species  builds  both  on  the  ground  and  on  trees.  The 
nest  is  made  of  fine  grass,  lined  with  hair  ;  eggs  three  to 
seven,  light  greenish-white,  speckled  with  dark  umber, 
the  specks  larger  towards  the  larger  end. 

Heermann's  Song-Sparrow,  M.  Heermanni,  Baird,  and 
Gould's  Song-  Sparrow,  M.  Gouldii,  Baird,  inhabit  Cali- 
fornia. 

The  Rusty  Song'-Sparrow,  M.  rufina,  Baird,  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast,  is  six  and  three  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing 


INSESSORES:   FRINGILLID^E.  21$ 

two  and  seven  tenths  inches,  light  rufous-brown  above, 
beneath  whitish. 

The  Mountain  Song-Sparrow,  M.fallax,  Baird,  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  very  similar  to  M.  melodia,  but  with 
smaller  bill  and  longer  wings  and  tail. 

Lincoln's  Finch,  M.  Lincolnii,  Baird,  of  North  America, 
is  five  and  six  tenths  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and  six 
tenths  inches  ;  crown  chestnut,  with  a  median  and  super- 
ciliary ashy  stripe  ;  back  streaked  with  black  ;  beneath, 
white  ;  a  stripe  behind  the  ear-coverts,  band  across  the 
breast,  and  under  tail-coverts,  brownish  yellow. 

The  Swamp  Sparrow,  M.  palustris,  Baird,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  the  wing  two  and  two  fifths  inches  ;  the  middle  of 
the  crown  chestnut,  forehead  black,  superciliary  streak,, 
sides  of  the  head,  and  back,  ash,  the  latter  broadly 
streaked  with  black ;  under  parts  whitish  tinged  with 
ashy  across  the  breast.  The  nest  is  built  at  the  foot  of 
a  tuft  of  grass  ;  eggs  four  or  five,  dull  white,  speckled 
with  reddish. 

The  Genus  Peuccea  has  the  upper  mandible  curved, 
very  short  and  much  rounded  wings,  tail  long  and  much 
graduated,  and  the  toes  short. 

Bachman's  Finch,  P.  cestivalis,  Cab.,  of  Georgia,  is  six 
and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the  wing  about  two  and  a  third 
inches,  the  feathers  above  dark  brownish-red  margined 
with  bluish  ash,  under  parts  pale  brownish-yellow,  and 
edge  of  wing  yellow. 

Cassin's  Finch,  P.  Cassinii,  Baird,  of  Texas,  is  similar 
to  the  last,  but  paler. 

The  Brown-headed  Finch,  P.  ruficeps,  Baird,  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  over  two 
and  a  third  inches,  ashy  brown  above,  the  crown  and 
nape  chestnut,  superciliary  stripe  ashy ;  under  parts  pale 
yellowish-brown,  chin  with  a  line  of  black  on  each  side. 


214  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Embernagra  comprises  the  Texas  Finch, 
E.  nifivirgata,  Lawr. 

The  third  group  comprises  those  which  have  the  legs, 
toes,  and  claws  very  stout,  and  the  lateral  claws  reaching 
nearly  to  the  end  of  the  middle  one.  They  are  sparrow- 
like  species  with  triangular  spots  beneath. 

The  Genus  Passerella  has  the  body  stout ;  wings  long 
and  pointed,  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the  nearly  even  tail. 

The  Fox-colored  Sparrow,  P.  iliaca,  Sw.,  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  three  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  back  dull 
ash,  each  feather  with  a  blotch  of  brownish  red  ;  the  top 
of  the  head  and  neck  similar,  but  with  smaller  and  less 
distinct  blotches  ;  the  exposed  surfaces  of  the  wings, 
upper  tail-coverts,  and  tail,  bright  rufous  ;  the  under 
parts  white  ;  the  upper  parts  of  the  breast,  sides  of  the 
body,  and  throat,  with  triangular  spots  of  rufous  ;  and  on 
the  middle  of  the  breast  a  few  smaller  ones  of  blackish. 
This  Sparrow  lingers  in  clumps  of  bushes  near  the  water, 
and  patches  of  briers  along  the  fences.  Its  flight  is  low, 
rapid,  undulatory,  and  its  notes  sweet.  The  nest  is  made 
upon  the  ground  in  a  tuft  of  grass,  or  under  a  low  bush  ; 
eggs  four  or  five,  rather  sharp  at  the  smaller  end,  dull 
greenish  sprinkled  with  blotches  of  brown. 

P.  obscura,  Verrill,  of  Anticosti,  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  preceding  species. 

Townsend's  Sparrow,  P.  Townsendii,  Nutt,  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast  of  North  America,  is  about  seven  inches  long, 
the  wing  about  three  inches  ;  the  color  above  uniform 
dark  olive-brown,  with  a  tinge  of  rufous  ;  the  under  parts 
are  white,  thickly  covered  with  triangular  blotches  of  the 
same  color  as  the  back. 

The  Slate-colored  Sparrow,  P.  schistacea,  Baird,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  six  and  four  fifths  inches  long, 
the  wing  over  three  inches  ;  the  color  above  uniform 


INSESSORES  :    FRINGILLID.E. 


215 


slate-gray  ;  the  upper  surfaces  of  wings,  tail,  and  coverts, 
dark  brownish-rufous  ;  under  paFts  white,  with  arrow- 
shaped  spots  of  slate-gray.  . 

The  fourth  group  comprises  those  which  are  bright- 
colored,  usually  without  streaks,  and  with  a  large  bill. 

The  Genus  Calamospiza  comprises  the  Lark  Bunting  or 
White-winged  Blackbird,  C.  bicolor,  Bonap.,  of  the  Central 
Plains,  which  is  six  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  three 
and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Euspiza  comprises  the  Black-throated  Bunt- 
ing, E.  americana,  Bonap.,  of  the  United"  States  east  of  the 
Central  Plains,  which  is  six  and  seven  tenths  inches  long, 
the  wing  three  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  sides  of 'the  head 
and  neck  and  back  of  the  neck,  ash  ;  crown  yellowish 
green,  streaked  with  dusky  ;  superciliary  stripe,  middle 
of  the  breast,  and  edge  of  the  wing,  yellow ;  under  parts 
white,  with  a  black  patch  upon  the  throat. 

The  Genus  Guiraca  has  the  bill  very  large. 

The  Rose-breasted  Grosbeak,  G.  ludoviciana,  Sw.,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  Missouri,  Fig.  121. 

is  eight  and  a  half  inches  long,  the 
wing  over  four  inches ;  the  upper 
parts,  head,  and  neck  all  round,  glos- 
sy black;  a  broad  crescent  across 
the  breast,  axillaries,  and  under 
wing-coverts,  carmine.  The  rest  of 
the  under  parts,  the  rump,  and  up- 
per tail-coverts,  middle  wing-coverts, 
spots  on  tertiaries  and  wing-coverts 
and  the  basal  half  of  primaries  and 
secondaries,  and  a  large  patch  on 
the  inner  web  of  the  outer  three 
tail-feathers,  pure  white.  The  fe- 
male is  without  black  or  carmine, 
or  the  white  of  the  quills,  tail,  and  rump.  The  song 
of  this  Grosbeak  is  loud,  clear,  and  mellow. 


Rose-breasted  Grosbeak, 
G.  ludoviciana^  Sw. 


216  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Black-headed  Grosbeak,  G.  melanocephala,  Sw.,  of 
Western  North  America,  is  eight  inches  long,  the  wing 
four  and  a  quarter  inches. 

The  Blue  Grosbeak,  G.  ccerulea,  Sw.,  of  the  Southern 
United  States,  is  seven  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  the 
wing  three  and  a  Jialf  inches,  and  at  once  distinguished 
by  its  brilliant  blue  color. 

The  Genus  Cyanospiza  has  the  upper  outline  of  the 
bill  considerably  curved,  wings  long  and  pointed,  tail 
rather  narrow  and  nearly  even,  and  the  tarsus  about 
equal  to  the  middle  toe.  The  species  are  all  small  and 
of  very  showy  plumage. 

The  Blue  Bunting,  C.  parellinay  Baird,  of  the  Rio 
Grande  region,  is  five  inches  long,  the  wing  two  and 
a  half  inches,  general  color  dark  blue. 

The  Varied  Bunting,  C.  versicolor,  Baird,  of  Northeast- 
ern Mexico,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  two 
and  three  quarters  inches  ;  the  colors  reddish,  blue,  and 
black. 

Th.e  Painted  Bunting,  or  Nonpareil,  C.  ciris,  Baird,  of 
the  Southern  States,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the 
wing  two  and  seven  tenths  inches ;  the  head  and  neck 
ultramarine  blue  ;  a  stripe  from  the  chin  to  the  breast,  the 
under  parts  generally,  and  the  rump,  vermilion.  The 
edges  of  the  chin,  loral  region,  greater  wing-coverts,  and 
interscapular  region  are  green  ;  and  the  tail,  lower  wing- 
coverts,  and  outer  webs  of  quills,  purplish  blue.  The 
female  is  dark  green  above,  yellow  below. 

The  Lazuli  Finch,  C.  amcena,  Baird,  of  the  Central 
Plains  .to  the  Pacific,  is  five  and  a  half  inches  long,  the 
wing  nearly  four  inches  ;  the  upper  parts  greenish  blue, 
the  upper  part  of  the  breast  pale  brownish-chestnut,  the 
remaining  under  parts,  except  the  blue  throat,  white. 

'  The  Indigo  Bird,  C.  cyanea,  Baird,  of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Missouri,  is  five  and  three  quarters  inches  long, 


'    INSESSORES:   FRINGILLID.E.  21? 

the  wing  three  inches  ;  the  color  bright  ultramarine  blue. 
The  female  is  brown  above,  whitish  beneath.  This  bird 
prefers  the  skirts  of  woodlands  and  detached  thickets. 
Its  song  consists  of  eight  or  ten  notes,  and  is  generally 
uttered  from  the  top  of  a  low  tree.  It  builds  its  nest  of 
grass  on  the  stalks  of  rank  grass  or  other  plants  ;  eggs 
four  to  six,  blue,  with  a  spot  or  two  of  purple  at  the 
larger  end. 

The  Genus  Spermophila  comprises  the  Little  Seed- 
eater,  vS.  moreletii,  Puch.,  of  Texas  and  southward. 

The  Genus  Pyrrhuloxia  has  the  bill  very  short,  broad, 
and  greatly  curved. 

The  Texas  Cardinal,  P.  sinuata,  Bonap.,  of  the  Rio 
Grande  region,  is  eight  and  a  half  inches  lo*ng,  the  wing 
three  and  three  quarters  inches ;  the  head  with  a  long 
pointed  crest ;  the  upper  parts  generally  pale  ashy-brown  ; 
crest,  wing,  and  tail,  dark  crimson  ;  throat,  breast,  median 
line  below,  under  tail-coverts,  the  edge  and  inner  coverts 
of  the  wings,  bright  carmine  ;  the  bill  yellowish. 

The  Genus  Cardinalis  has  the  bill  enormously  devel- 
oped, and  the  head  crested. 

The  Red  Bird  or  Cardinal,  C.  virginianus,  Bonap.,  of 
the  more  southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  is  eight 
and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  three  quarters 
inches,  and  the  general  color  vermilion  ;  a  band  around 
the  base  of  the  bill  and  upper  part  of  the  throat  black. 
The  female  with  duller  red,  and  less  in  extent. 

The  Genus  Pipilo  has  the  bill  rather  stout,  feet  large, 
the  claws  stout  and  curved,  tail  considerably  longer  than 
the  wings  ;  the  upper  parts  generally  black  or  brown, 
under  parts  white  or  brown. 

The  Ground-Robin,  Towhee,  or  Chewink,  P.  erythroph- 
thalmus,  Vieill.,  of  the  United  States  east  of  the  Missouri, 
is  eight  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  the  wing  three 
and  three  quarters  inches ;  the  upper  parts  generally, 

10 


2i8  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

head  and  neck  all  round,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  breast, 
Fig.  122.  glossy  black  abruptly 

defined  against  the 
pure  white  below  ; 
the  sides  light  chest- 
nut, wings  and  tail 
black  marked  with 
white,  and  the  iris 

Chewink,  P.  erythrophthalmns,  Vieill.  red.       The  female  has 

the  black  replaced  with  brown.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
common  birds,  and  is  usually  seen  upon  the  ground 
among  low  bushes.  Every  few  moments  its  favorite 
chewink  comes  to  our  ears.  Sometimes  it  ascends  to  the 
top  of  a  small  tree,  and  sings  with  a  mellow  sweetness 
which  cannot  fail  to  interest  any  one  who  hears  it.  The 
nest  is  made  upon  the  ground,  in  a  little  hole  scraped 
out  for  the  purpose  ;  eggs  four  to  six,  pale  flesh-color, 
with  dark  spots.  Two  or  three  broods  are  raised  in  a 
season. 

The  Oregon  Ground  Robin,  P.  oregonus,  Bell ;  the 
Arctic  Towhee,  P.  arcticus,  Sw.,  of  the  Central  Plains  ; 
the  Spurred  Towhee,  P.  megalonyx,  Baird,  of  California 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  with  the  claws  enormously  devel- 
oped ;  Abert's  Towhee,  P.  Abertii,  Baird,  of  the  South- 
ern Rocky  Mountains  ;  the  Brown  Towhee,  P.  fuscus, 
.  Sw.,  of  the  coast  region  of  California ;  the  Canon  Finch, 
P.  mesoleucus,  Baird,  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  westward, — 
are  additional  species. 

Blanding's  Finch,  P.  chlorurus,  Baird,  of  the  Rio  Grande 
and  Rocky  Mountains,  is  seven  inches  long,  the  wing  over 
three  inches,  the  color  above  dull  grayish  olive-green,  the 
crown  chestnut,  the  upper  part  of  the  breast  and  sides 
of  the  body  bluish  ash,  the  exterior  of  the  wings  and  tail 
bright  olive-green,  the  edge  and  under  surface  of  the 
former  bright  yellow. 


INSESSORES  :   ICTERID.E. 

ICTERID^E,  OR  BLACKBIRD  FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises birds  with  a  long  bill,  nine  primaries,  tail  rather 
long  and  rounded,  the  legs  stout,  the  basal  joint  of  the 
middle  toe  free  on  the  inner  side,  and  united  half-way  on 
the  outer. 

The  Genus  Ploceus  comprises  the  Weavers  of  Africa 
and  India,  celebrated  for  their  curious  nests  woven  of 
grass.  Some  species,  like  the  Republican,  Loxia  soda, 
Lath.,  unite  by  hundreds,  and  construct  a  roof,  beneath 
which  they  build  their  nests,  each  being  separate  and 
entered  from  below.  The  nest  of  others  is  a  suspended 
sphere,  from  which,  in  some  cases,  there  hangs  down  a 
long  tube  loosely  woven  of  grass. 

The  Genus  Dolichonyx  has  the  middle  toe  very  long, 
and  the  tail  feathers  with  rigid  acuminate  points. 

The  Bobolink,  Reed-bird,  or  Rice-bird,  D.  oryzivorus, 
Sw.,  of  North  America  east  of  the  Central  Plains,  is  seven 
and  seven  tenths  inches  Fig.  123. 

long,  the  wing  less  than 
four  inches ;  the  general 
color  black,  beautifully 
marked  with  cream-color 
and  white.  The  female 
is  yellowish  beneath,  the 
feathers  above  dark  brown 
edged  with  brownish  yel- 
low. Late  in  the  sum- 
mer the  male  assumes  the 
colors  of  the  female.  Dur-  Bobolink,  D. 

ing  summer  this  beautiful  bird  is  seen  in  every  meadow, 
and  its  jingling  song  is  heard  throughout  a  great  part  of 
the  day.  This  is  frequently  uttered  while  on  the  wing. 
The  nest  is  built  on  the  ground,  and  composed  of  grass ; 
eggs  four  to  six,  white  tinged  with  dull  blue,  and  spotted 
with  blackish.  Late  in  the  summer,  these  birds  are  seen 


220  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

in  immense  flocks  around  grain-fields.  At  length  they 
move  southward,  lingering  by  the  margins  of  creeks  and 
rivers,  where  the  tops  of  the  reeds  are  bent  with  the  ripe 
seeds.  Here  the  Reed-birds  become  extremely  fat,  and 
thousands  are  shot  by  the  hunters,  and  sold  in  the  mar- 
kets. 

The  Genus  Molothrus  is  represented  in  North  America 
by  the  Cow-bird,  M.  pecoris,  Sw.,  which  is  eight  inches 
long,  the  wing  less  than  four  and  a  half  inches  ;  the 
head,  neck,  and  anterior  half  of  the  breast  light  choco- 
late-brown ;  the  rest  of  the  body  lustrous  black.  The 
female  is  light  olivaceous-brown.  In  spring  and  summer 
this  bird  lingers  around  the  cattle  in  the  pastures.  Like 
the  European  Cuckoo  it  makes  no  nest  ;  but  stealthily 
lays  its  eggs,  only  one  in  a  place,  in  the  nests  of  other 
birds  ;  especially  in  those  of  the  Maryland  Yellow-throat, 
several  Flycatchers,  the  Blue-bird,  Chipping  Sparrow,  and 
Golden-crowned  Thrush.  The  egg  is  pale  grayish-blue, 
sprinkled  with  umber-brown  dots  and  short  streaks  ;  and 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  it  hatches  before  the  eggs 
of  the  bird  in  whose  nest  it  is  laid.  No  sooner  has  the 
young  Cow-bird  hatched,  than  the  foster-parents  fly  off 
to  obtain  food  for  it,  and  hence  their  own  eggs  perish, 
and  are  at  length  thrown  from  the  nest.  The  young  bird 
is  cared  for  with  all  tenderness,  and  fed  even  long  after  it 
has  begun  to  fly  about,  and  after  it  has  become  larger 
than  the  foster-parents  themselves. 

The  Genus  Agelaius  has  the  first  quill  shorter  than  the 
second  and  third,  and  the  outer  claw  scarcely  reaching  to 
the  base  of  the  middle  one. 

The  Red-winged  Blackbird,  A.  phceniceus,  Vieill.,  of 
North  America,  is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing 
five  inches,  the  general  color  lustrous  black,  the  shoulders 
and  lesser  wing-coverts  bright  crimson  or  vermilion.  The 
female  is  brown  above,  the  feathers  edged  or  streaked 


,     INSESSORES:    ICTERID.E.  221 

with  rufous  brown  or  yellowish,  under  parts  white  streaked 
with  brown.  The  nest  is  made  on  low  bushes,  frequently 
growing  in  or  hanging  over  the  water,  and  is  composed- 
of  coarse  grasses  and  leaves  without,  and  fine  materials 
within  ;  eggs  four  to  six,  light  blue,  sparsely  spotted 
with  dusky. 

The  Red-shouldered  Blackbird,  A.  gubernator,  Bonap., 
of  the  Pacific  coast,  is  nine  inches  long,  the  wing  five 
inches,  the  color  lustrous  black,  the  shoulders  and  lesser 
coverts  rich  crimson,  the  middle  coverts  brownish  yellow 
at  the  base,  but  the  exposed  portion  black.  The  female 
is  dusky  varied  with  paler. 

The  Red  and  White-shouldered  Blackbird,  A.  tricolor, 
Bonap.,  of  California,  is  over  nine  inches  long,  the  wing 
less  than  five  inches  ;  the  color  lustrous  black,  the  shoul- 
ders and  lesser  wing-coverts  brownish  red,  the  median 
coverts  white  with  sometimes  a  tinge  of  brown.  The 
female  is  dark  brown  marked  with  grayish  ash. 

The  Genus  Xanthocephalus  has  the  bill  nearly  straight, 
wings  long,  first  quill  longest,  claws  very  long  and  much 
curved,  and  the  tail  narrow  and  nearly  even. 

The  Yellow-headed  Blackbird,  X.  icterocephalus,  Baird, 
of  North  America,  is  ten  inches  long,  the  wing  over  five 
and  a  half  inches  ;  the  general  color  black ;  the  head  and 
neck  all  round,  and  fore  part  of  the  breast,  yellow,  and 
there  is  a  white  patch  at  the  base  of  the  wing.  The  fe- 
male is  smaller  and  browner. 

The  Genus  Trupialis  has  the  feathers  of  the  crown 
with  the  shafts  prolonged  into  stiffened  bristles.  It  is 
represented  by  the  Red-breasted  Lark,  T.  militaris, 
Bonap.,  of  South  America  and  perhaps  California,  which 
is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  nearly  five  inches. 

The  Genus  Sturnella  has  the  bill  slender,  elongated, 
the  feathers  of  the  head  stiffened  and  bristly,  the  hind 
claw  nearly  twice  as  long  as  the  middle  one. 


222  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

The  Meadow  Lark,  .S.  magna,  Sw.,  of  North  America 
east  of  the  Central  Plains,  is  over  ten  and  a  half  inches 
.  long,  the  wing  five  inches ;  the  upper  parts  are  brown  mark- 
Fig.  124.  ed  with  brown- 
ish white,  and  the 
exposed  portions 
of  the  wings  and 
tail   with   trans- 
verse dark  brown 
bars ;  the  under 
parts  yellow, with 
a  black  pectoral 

Meadow-Lark,  S.  magna,  Sw.  CrCSCCnt.      When 

this  bird  first  rises  from  the  ground,  it  flutters  like 
a  young  bird,  then  proceeds  generally  in  a  straight 
course,  now  checking  its  speed,  now  resuming  it,  as 
if  undecided  whether  to  move  fast  or  slow.  When 
pursued  by  the  hunter,  it  moves  more  swiftly,  alter- 
nately sailing  and  beating  with  its  wings  till  it  is  beyond 
the  reach  of  harm.  The  nest  is  built  at  the  foot  of  a 
tuft  of  grass  in  a  cavity  scooped  out  of  the  ground.  It 
is  covered  over,  except  an  entrance  just  large  enough  to 
admit  one  bird  at  a  time  ;  eggs  four  or  five,  pure  white, 
sprinkled  and  blotched  with  reddish  brown.  Both  birds 
engage  in  the  work  of  incubation. 

The  Western  Lark,  5.  neglecta,  Aud.,  of  Western  North 
America,  is  ten  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  and  a  quar- 
ter inches,  and  very  closely  resembles  the  preceding. 

The  Genus  Icterus  has  the  bill  slender,  very  acute,  and 
as  long  as  the  head  and  a  little  decurved  ;  the  claws 
short  and  much  curved  ;  prevailing  colors  yellow,  orange, 
and  black. 

The  Troupial,  7.  vulgaris,  Daudin,  of  South  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  and  accidental  in  the  United  States, 
is  ten  inches  long,  and  the  wing  four  and  a  half  inches  ; 


INSESSORES  :  ICTERIM:.  223 

the  head  and  upper  neck  all  round,  and  beneath  from  the 
tail  to  the  upper  part  of  the  breast,  the  interscapular  re- 
gion, wings,  and  tail,  black ;  the  remaining  under  parts, 
a  collar  on  the  hind  part  of  the  neck,  rump,  and  upper 
tail-coverts,  yellowish  orange  ;  a  band  upon  the  wings 
and  edges  of  the  secondaries,  white. 

Audubon's  Oriole,  /.  Audtibdnii,  Giraud,  of  the  Rio 
Grande  region  ;  Scott's  Oriole,  7.  parisorum,  Bonap.,  of 
Texas  ;  Wagler's  Oriole,  /.  Wagleri,  Sclat,  of  the  Rio 
Grande  region  and  Mexico  ;  and  the  Hooded  Oriole, 
/.  cucullatus,  Sw.,  of  the  Lower  Rio  Grande,  are  addi- 
tional species  of  Icterus. 

The  Orchard  Oriole,  7.  spurius,  Bonap.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  seven  and  a  quarter 
inches  long,  the  wing  three  and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the 
head  and  neck  all  round,  wings,  interscapular  region,  and 
tail,  black  ;  under  parts,  lower  part  of  the  back,  lesser 
upper  wing-coverts,  and  the  lower  ones,  brownish  chest- 
nut ;  a  narrow  line  across  the  wing  and  the  outer  edges 
of  the  quills,  white.  The  female  is  olivaceous  above, 
greenish  yellow  beneath,  and  there  are  two  white  bands 
upon  the  wings.  The  nest,  generally  built  in  orchards 
or  upon  willows,  is  made  of  long  grasses  curiously  inter- 
woven and  fastened  to  the  smaller  twigs  ;  eggs  four  to 
six,  bluish  white  sprinkled  with  dark  brown. 

The  Baltimore  Oriole,  Golden  Robin,  or  Hangnest, 
7.  baltimore,  Daud.,  of  North  America  east  of  the  High 
Central  Plains,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  three  and  three  quarters  inches  ;  the  color  is  black, 
with  the  rump,  upper  tail-coverts,  lesser  wing-coverts,  the 
terminal  portion  of  all  but  two  tail-feathers,  and  the  under 
parts,  orange  red  ;  the  edges  of  quills,  and  a  band  across 
the  tips  of  the  greater  coverts,  white.  The  female  is 
much  duller,  the  black  of  the  head  and  back  replaced  by 
brownish  yellow.  This  well-known  and  beautiful  bird 


224  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

constructs  its  curious  nest  on  the  outer  drooping  twigs 
of  elms  and  of  other  trees.  The  song  consists  of  few 
notes,  but  these  are  loud,  full,  and  mellow. 

Bullock's  Oriole,  /.  Bullockii,  Bormp.,  of  Western  North 
America,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
three  and  eight  tenths  inches.  The  color  is  black,  with 
the  under  parts,  the  sides  of  head  and  neck,  forehead  and 
line  over  the  eye,  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts,  and  tail 
except  two  central  feathers,  yellow  orange  ;  the  outer 
edges  of  the  quills  and  a  band  across  the  wing,  white. 

The  Genus  Scolecophagus  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the 
head,  tail  even  or  slightly  rounded. 

The  Rusty  Blackbird,  S.ferrugineus,  Sw.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica east  of  the  Missouri,  is  nine  and  a  half  inches,  and  the 
wing  four  and  three  quarters  inches  ;  the  general  color 
black,  with  purple  reflections.  The  female  is  dull  brown. 

Brewer's  Blackbird,  5.  cyanocephalus,  Cab.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  ten  inches  long,  the  wing  about  five 
and  a  third  inches. 

The  Genus  Quiscalus  has  the  bill  as  long  as  the  head, 
the  tail  long,  graduated  ;  colors  lustrous  black. 

The  Great-tailed  Grakle,  Q.  macrourus,  Sw.,  of  the 
Lower  Rio  Grande,  is  eighteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
seven  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Boat-tailed  Grakle  or  Jackdaw,  Q.  major,  Vieill., 
of  the  Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  is  fifteen  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  seven  inches  ;  the  general  color  lus- 
trous black,  head  and  forward  parts  glossed  with  purple. 

The  Crow  Blackbird,  Q.  versicolor,  Vieill.,  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Central  Plains,  is  thirteen  inches 
long,  the  wing  six  inches  ;  head  and  neck  all  round 
steel-blue,  and  the  rest  of  the  body  black,  with  varied 
metallic  reflections.  These  beautiful  birds  are  seen  in 
large  numbers  as  soon  as  the  farmers  plough  their  fields, 
which  they  visit  to  search  for  grubs  and  worms  which  the 


INSESSORES:    CORVID.E.  22$ 

plough  uncovers.  They  also  visit  newly-sown  grain-fields 
to  pick  up  the  exposed  kernels,  and  in  the  autumn  large 
flocks  commit  depredations  upon  the  cornfields. 

The  Florida  Blackbird,  Q.  baritus,  Vieill,  of  the  West 
Indies  and  Florida  coast,  is  over  ten  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  five  inches. 

STURNID.E,  OR  STARLING  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  which  are  nearly  related  to  the  preceding 
one,  but  which  have  a  rudimentary  outer  primary,  thus 
making  the  primaries  ten  instead  of  nine,  as  in  Icteridae. 

The  Genus  Sturnus  comprises  the  Common  Starling, 
5.  vulgaris,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a 
thrush,  black  with  violet  and  green  reflections,  and  spot- 
ted with  white  or  fawn-color.  It  moves  in  large  flocks," 
is  easily  tamed,  and  may  be  taught  to  sing,  and  even  to 
speak. 

CORVID^:,  OR  CROW  FAMILY. — This  Family  comprises 
the  Crows  and  their  allies. 

The  Genus  Corvus  has  the  bill  thick,  culmen  much 
curved,  bristly  feathers  at  the  base  of  the  bill  half  as  long 
as  the  culmen,  and  the  color  throughout  black. 

The  American  Raven,  C.  carnivorus,  Bartram,  of  North 
America,  but  rare  east  of  the  Mississippi,  is  twenty-four 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  seventeen  inches.  It  makes  its 
nest  on  high  and  rugged  cliffs.  The  eggs  are  four  to  six, 
two  inches  long,  and  of  a  light  greenish-blue,  and  covered 
with  blotches  of  light  purple  and  yellowish  brown. 

The  Colorado  Raven,  C.  cacalotl,  Wagler,  of  California, 
is  twenty-five  inches  long,  and  the  wing  eighteen  inches ; 
the  color  glossy  black. 

The  White-necked  Crow,  C.  cryptoleucus,  Couch,  of  the 
Rio  Grande  region,  is  twenty-one  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  fourteen  inches.  The  color  is  glossy  black,  with 
the  feathers  of  the  neck  and  breast  snow-white  at  the 
base. 

10*  O 


226  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

The  Common  Crow,  C.  americanus,  Aud.,  of  North 
America,  is  about  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  about 
thirteen  inches.  Its  stately  gait  when  moving  upon  the 
ground,  its  manner  of  flight,  its  shyness  and  cunning,  and 
its  propensity  to  scratch  up  and  pull  up  the'  corn  of  the 
farmer,  are  all  well  known  ;  but  the  great  benefit  which 
the  crow  confers  upon  the  farmer,  by  destroying  an  almost 
infinite  number  of  grubs  destructive  to  the  crops,  is  not 
so  well  understood. 

The  Fish  Crow,  C.  ossifragus,  Wils.,  of  the  South  At- 
lantic coast,  is  fifteen  and  a  half  inches  long,  'and  the 
wing  ten  and  a  half  inches.  This  species  feeds  upon 
small  fishes,  which  it  secures  with  its  claws  as  it  passes 
over  the  water. 

The  Western  Fish  Crow,  C.  caurinus,  Baird,  of  North- 
western North  America,  is  sixteen  and  a  half  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  eleven  inches. 

The  Rook,  C.  frugilegus,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  is  nineteen 
inches  long,  black,  and  glossed  with  purple.  It  usually 
builds  near  human  dwellings,  and  sometimes  in  large 
cities. 

The  Genus  Picicorvus  is  represented  by  Clark's  Crow, 
P.  columbianus,  Bonap.,  of  Western  North  America, 
which  is  twelve  inches  long,  and  the  wing  seven  inches ; 
the  general  color  bluish  ash,  the  secondaries  and  tertials 
broadly  tipped  with  white,  and  the  tail  mainly  white. 

The  Genus  Gymnokitta  has  the  nostrils  naked,  and  the 
tail  short  and  even. 

Maximilian's  Jay,  G.  cyanocephala,  Pr.  Max.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  ten  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  and 
nine  tenths  inches  ;  the  general  color  dull  blue. 

The  Genus  Pica  has  the  bill  much  curved,  tail  very 
long  and  graduated. 

The  Magpie,  P.  hudsonica,  Bonap.,  of  North  America, 
is  nineteen  inches  long,  the  wing  eight  and  a  half  inches, 


INSESSORES:    CORVIDjE. 


227 


Fig.  195. 


and  the  tail  eleven  inches  ;  the  general  color  black ;  the 
belly,  scapulars,  and  inner  webs  of  primaries  white,  and 
the  neck  spotted 
with  white.  The 
European  Magpie 
is  closely  related  to 
the  American  spe- 
cies, but  its  voice 
and  habits  are  said 
to  be  different. 

The  Yellow-billed 
Magpie,  P.  Nuttalli, 
Aud.,  of  California, 
is  seventeen  inches 
long,  and  the  wing 
eight  inches. 

The  Genus  Cya- 
nura  has  the  head 
crested  ;  wings  and 
tail  blue,  with  trans- 
verse bars  of  black. 

The  Blue  Jay,  C. 
cristata,  Sw.,  of  North  America  east  of  the  Missouri,  is 
twelve  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  and  the  wing  less  than 
five  and  three  quarters  inches.  In  beauty  of  plumage 
this  bird  is  not  surpassed,  if  equalled,  by  any  other  bird 
in  the  United  States ;  but  its  notes  are  harsh  and  dis- 
agreeable, and  its  habit  of  stealing  and  eating  the  eggs 
and  young  of  other  birds  gives  it  an  unenviable  repu- 
tation. 

Steller's  Jay,  C.  Stelleri,  Sw.,  of  Western  North  Amer- 
ica, is  thirteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  less  than  six 
inches  ;  the  head  and  neck  all  round,  and  the  fore  part 
of  the  breast,  dark  brownish-black ;  back  and  lesser 
wing-coverts  blackish  brown  ;  under  parts,  rump,  tail- 
coverts,  and  wings  blue. 


Magpie,  P'.  hndsonica,  Bonap. 


228  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

The  Long-crested  Jay,  C.  macrolophus,  Baird,  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  twelve  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  less  than  six  inches,  and  is  distinguished  by  its 
lorfg  crest,  which  is  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  bill. 

The  Genus  Cyanocitta  has  the  head  without  a  crest, 
the  wings  and  tail  blue,  but  not  banded. 

The  California  Jay,  C.  californica,  Strick,  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  is  twelve  and  a  quarter  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
five  inches ;  general  color  above  blue  without  bars  ;  a 
crescent  of  blue  on  the  fore  part  of  the  breast ;  under 
parts  before  the  crescent,  white  streaked  with  blue  ;  be- 
hind it,  dull  white. 

Woodhouse's  Jay,  C.  Woodhousii,  Baird,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  ;  the  Florida  Jay,  C.  floridana,  Bonap.  ;  the 
Mountain  Jay,  C.  sordida,  Baird,  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains ;  and  the  Ultramarine  Jay,  C.  ultramarina,  Strick., 
of  the  Rio  Grande  region,  are  additional  species  of  Cy- 
anocitta. 

The  Genus  Xanthoura  has  the  bill  very  stout,  head 
without  a  crest,  the  throat  black,  and  the  lateral  tail- 
feathers  bright  yellow. 

The  Rio  Grande  Jay,  X.  luxtwsa,  Bonap.,  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  is  eleven  inches  long,  and  the  wing  four  and 
three  quarters  inches  ;  the  color  above,  green  ;  beneath, 
yellow  glossed  with  green  ;  the  inside  of  the  wings  and 
four  outer  tail-feathers,  yellow  ;  the  sides  of  the  head,  and 
beneath  from  the  bill  to  the  fore  part  of  the  breast,  black  ; 
the  crown  and  nape  brilliant  blue,  and  the  sides  of  the 
forehead  white. 

The  Genus  Perisoreus  has  the  bill  very  short,  and 
notched  at  the  tip  ;  head  without  a  distinct  crest. 

The  Canada  Jay,  P.  canadensis,  Bonap.,  of  Northern 
North  America,  is  over  ten  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  five  and  three  quarters  inches ;  the  head  and 
neck  and  fore  part  of  the  breast,  white ;  a  plumbeous 


INSESSORES  :    MENURID^.  22Q 

brown  nuchal  patch,  becoming  darker  to  the  back,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  whitish  collar  ;  the  other  upper 
parts  plumbeous  ;  under  parts  smoky  gray. 

The  Genus  Psilorhinus  is  represented  by  the  Brown 
Jay,  P.  morio,  Gray,  of  the  Rio  Grande  region,  which  is 
sixteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  eight  inches. 

MENURID^E,  OR  LYRE-BIRD  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  Australian  birds  which  in  some  respects  are 
allied  to  the  Thrushes,  in  others  to  the  Jays,  while  their 
large  size  has  induced  some  authors  to  place  them  with 
the  Rasores.  With  this  explanation,  they  may,  for  con- 
venience, be  mentioned  here.  They  are  nearly  as  large 
as  a  pheasant,  and  are  distinguished  by  the  remarkable 
tail  of  the  male,  which  is  composed  of  three  sorts  of 
feathers  ;  —  twelve  very  long,  and  with  very  fine  and 
widely  separated  barbs ;  two  more,  in  the  middle,  only 
one  side  of  which  is  furnished  with  barbs  ;  and  two  more 
external,  curved  into  the  form  of  the  arms  of  a  lyre,  and 
whose  internal  barbs,  large  and  thickly  set,  form  a  sort 
of  broad  ribbon,  while  the  external  barbs  are  very  short. 

PARADISEID.E,  OR  BIRD  OF  PARADISE  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  birds  peculiar  to  New  Guinea  and  ad- 
jacent islands,  and  distinguished  for  their  wonderfully  de- 
veloped and  beautiful  plumage.  The  Genus  Paradiscea 
is  the  principal  one. 

The  Emerald  Bird  of  Paradise,  P.  apoda,  Linn.,  is  about 
the  size  of  the  American  Robin,  marroon  color,  the  top 
of  the  head  and  neck  yellow,  the  throat  and  around  the 
bill  emerald.  The  sides  of  the  tail  have  a  splendid  plume 
of  long,  loose  feathers  of  a  delicate  yellow  hue,  and  on 
either  side  of  these  are  two  slender  shafts  nearly  two  feet 
in  length. 

BUCERHWE,  OR  HORNBILL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises large  birds  of  Africa  and  India,  which  have  the  bill 
very  large,  dentated,  and  generally  surmounted  with  an 


230  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

extraordinary  protuberance,  which  in  some  cases  is  as 
large  as  the  bill  itself.  By  their  bill  these  birds  are  allied 
to  the  Toucans,  but  their  general  carriage  and  habits  ap- 
proximate them  to  the  Crows. 

SUB-SECTION    IV. 

THE  ORDER   OF   RASORES,   OR  SCRATCHERS. 

THE  Order  of  Rasores  comprises  Birds  which  have  the 
bill  not  longer  than  the  head,  the  terminal  portion 
more  or  less  vaulted,  and  hard,  and  with  or  without  a 
soft  skin  intervening  between  it  and  the  head,  and  the 
nostril  with  a  fleshy  scale  extending  over  its  upper  edge. 
With  few  exceptions,  they  have  a  heavy  body,  short  wings, 
rather  stout  legs,  and  large  tail.  They  live  mainly  upon 
the  ground,  are  social  in  their  habits,  and  feed  princi- 
pally upon  nuts,  berries,  buds,  tender  leaves,  and  grain. 

The  Rasores  comprise  two  Sub-Orders,  —  Columbae 
and  Gallinae. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Columbae  or  Doves  comprises  those 
which  have  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head,  the  basal  por- 
tion covered  by  a  soft  skin  in  which  the  nostrils  are  sit- 
uated, the  hind  toe  on  the  same  level  as  the  others,  and 
the  anterior  toe  without  a  basal  membrane.  They  live  in 
pairs,  lay  generally  but  two  eggs  for  a  brood,  but  breed 
often,  and  feed  their  young,  which  are  hatched  in  a  very 
feeble  condition,  with  macerated  food  from  their  own 
crops.  Bonaparte  calls  the  true  Doves  or  Pigeons  Gy- 
rantes,  and  divides  them  into  four  families ;  —  Treronidae, 
of  the  Old  World,  and  especially  of  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  which  have  the  bill  robust  and  tumid,  the  feathers 
soft  and  without  lustre,  the  prevailing  color  green,  and 
the  tail  with  fourteen  feathers ;  Columbidae,  universally 
distributed ;  Caloenidae,  of  the  East  India  islands ;  and 
Gouridae,  of  New  Guinea. 


RASORESI    COLUMBID^E.  2$  I 

COLUMBID^:,  OR  DOVE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises those  which  have  the  bill  horny  at  the  tip,  tail- 
feathers  twelve,  occasionally  fourteen,  and  the  plumage 
more  or  less  adorned  with  metallic  lustre.  About  a 
dozen  species  are  found  in  North  America,  and  all  but 
two  or  three  belong  to  the  southern  and  southwestern 
portions. 

The  Genus  Columba  has  the  head  large,  and  the  tail 
short,  broad,  and  rounded.  It  comprises  the  Band-tailed 
Pigeon,  C.  fasciata,  Say,  of  Western  North  America ;  the 
Red-billed  Dove,  C.  flavirostris,  Wagl.,  of  the  Lower  Rio 
Grande  ;  and  the  White-headed  Pigeon,  C.  leucocephala, 
Linn.,  of  Florida  Keys. 

The  Rock  Dove,  C.  livia,  Briss.,  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
is  of  a  slate-gray  color,  the  neck  glossy  with  greenish 
hues,  the  rump  white,  and  a  double  black  band  upon  the 
wings.  This  species  is  celebrated  as  the  probable  stock 
of  most,  if  not  all,  of  our  domestic  varieties. 

The  Carrier  Pigeon  is  a  domestic  variety  which  from 
very  ancient  times  has  been  employed  more  or  less  for 
the  transmission  of  intelligence.  Formerly  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  suspend  the  paper  upon  which  the  message 
was  written  from  the  neck ;  but  in  later  times  it  has  been 
tied  to  the  upper  part  of  the  leg.  A  message  has  thus 
been  sent  a  thousand  miles. 

The  Genus  Ectopistes  has  the  head  very  small,  bill 
short  and  black,  and  the  tail  very  long  and  cuneate. 

The  Wild  or  Passenger  Pigeon,  E.  migmtoria,  Sw.,  of 
North  America  east  of  the  High  Central  Plains,  is  seven- 
teen inches  long,  and  the  wing  eight  and  a  half  inches ; 
the  upper  parts  blue,  under  parts  purplish  red  passing 
into  whitish  behind,  and  the  sides  and  back  of  the  neck 
a  glossy  golden-violet.  The  female  is  smaller  and  much 
duller  in  color.  This  bird  is  extremely  rapid  in  flight, 
being  able  to  perform  a  long  journey  at  an  average  speed 


232  VERTEBRATES  :   BIRDS. 

of  a  mile  a  minute.  The  migrations  are  wholly  for  the 
purpose  of  procuring  food,  and  hence  do  not  take  place 
at  any  particular  season  of  the  year.  Pigeons  go  wher- 
ever they  can  find  a  supply  of  grain,  rice,  or  nuts.  The 


Fig.  126. 


Wild  Pigeon,  E.  migratoria,  Sw. 

numbers  that  sometimes  move  together  are  vast  beyond 
conception.  Millions  associate  in  a  single  roost,  com- 
pletely filling  a  forest  for  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  length 
and  several  miles  in  breadth,  and  literally  loading  and 
breaking  down  large  trees.  From  their  roosts  they  fly 
off  hundreds  of  miles,  in  some  cases,  to  feeding-grounds, 
and  return  at  night.  Sometimes,  in  their  migrations, 
they  fill  the  air  like  a  cloud,  and  thus  continue  to  pass 
for  a  whole  day,  and  even  for  two  or  three  successive 
days.  The  nest  is  built  on  high  trees,  and  is  composed 
of  a  few  dry  sticks  and  twigs  crossing  each  other,  and 
,  supported  by  the  forks  of  the  branches  ;  and  more  than 
a  hundred  nests  are  sometimes  placed  on  a  single  tree. 
The  Genus  Zenaida,  represented  by  the  Zenaida  Dove, 
Z.  amabilis,  Bonap.,  of  the  Florida  Keys,  has  the  tail 
short,  rounded,  and  the  orbits  feathered. 


RASORES  :    COLUMBID^E. 

The  Genus  Melopelia,  represented  by  the  White-winged 
Dove,  M.  leiicoptera,  Bonap.,  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  the 
West  Indies,  has  the  tail  short,  rounded,  and  the  orbits 
naked. 

The  Genus  Zenaidura  has  the  tail  excessively  length- 
ened, cuneate,  and  with  fourteen  feathers. 

The  Carolina  Dove,  Z.  carolinensis,  Bonap.,  of  the 
United  States,  is  nearly  thirteen  inches  long,  the  wing 
five  and  three  quarters  inches ;  the  color  above,  bluish, 
overlaid  with  brownish  olive  ;  the  head,  sides  of  the  neck, 
and  under  parts  generally,  light  brownish-red,  strongly 
tinged  on  the  breast  with  purple ;  the  sides  of  the  neck 
with  a  patch  of  metallic  purplish-red  ;  the  bill  black,  and 
feet  yellow.  The  female  is  smaller,  with  less  red  be- 
neath. At  night,  doves  of  this  species  roost  upon  the 
ground,  and  some  distance  apart. 

The  Turtle  Dove,  C.  turtur,  Linn.,  of  the  Old  World, 
celebrated  for  its  gentleness  and  plaintive  notes,  is  eleven 
and  a  half  inches  long  ;  the  upper  parts  tawny  slate-color 
spotted  with  brown  ;  the  breast  brownish,  and  the  other 
under  parts  white. 

The  Genus  Scardafella,  represented  by  the  Scaly  Dove, 
5.  squamosa,  Bonap.,  of  the  Rio  Grande,  which  is  only 
eight  inches  long,  has  the  bill  lengthened,  tail  very  long, 
and  much  graduated. 

The  Genus  Chamcepelia,  comprising  the  smallest  doves 
known,  is  represented  by  the  Ground  Dove,  C.  passerina, 
Sw.,  of  the  Southern  States,  which  is*  only  six  and  three 
tenths  inches  long,  and  the  wing  three  and  a  half  inches  ; 
color  above,  grayish  olive  ;  under  parts  light  purplish-red. 

The  Genus  Oreopeleia,  represented  by  the  Key  West 
Pigeon,  O.  martinica,  Reich.,  has  the  bill  lengthened, 
slender,  feet  large,  and  tail  suborbicular. 

The  Genus  Starnoenas  has  the  bill  short,  legs  stout, 
tail  short  and  broad.  It  is  represented  by  the  Blue- 


234  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

headed  Pigeon,  5.  cyanocephala,  Bonap.,  of  Key  West  and 
the  West  Indies,  which  much  resembles  the  quails. 

GOURID^E,  OR  GOURA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises Columbae  of  large  size,  with  the  head  conspicuously 
crested.  They  belong  to  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

The  Genus  Goura  comprises  the  Crown  Pigeon,  G.  coro- 
nata,  Temm.,  which  is  about  the  size  of  a  turkey,  and  the 
head  has  a  vertical  crest  of  long,  slender  feathers. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Gallinae  comprises  the  true  Rasores, 
which  have  the  bill  short,  stout,  and  the  basal  portion 
hard,  and  generally  covered  by  feathers,  and  not  by  soft 
skin  ;  the  legs  lengthened,  the  hind  toe  in  most  cases 
elevated,  the  toes  connected  at  the  base  by  a  membrane. 
The  young  are  able  to  run  about  as  soon  as  hatched. 
There  are  five  families,  —  Penelopidae  or  Curassow  Fam- 
ily, Megapodidae  or  Mound-Bird  Family,  Phasianidae  or 
Pheasant  Family,  Tetraonidae  or  Grouse  Family,  and  Per- 
dicrdae  or  Quail  Family. 

PENELOPIDAE,  OR  CURASSOW  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  birds  peculiar  to  Central  and  South  America. 
They  are  mainly  of  large  size,  about  as  large  as  turkeys, 
and  move  in  flocks,  and  build  their  nests  among  and 
often  upon  the  trees.  They  are  known  under  the  names 
of  Curassows,  Hoccos,  and  Guans. 

The  Genus  Ortalida  is  represented  by  the  Chiacalacca, 
Ortalida  McCalli,  Baird,  of  New  Mexico,  which  is  twenty- 
three  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  eight  and  a  half 
inches ;  above  dark  greenish-olive,  beneath  brownish 
yellow,  head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  plumbeous,  tail- 
feathers  lustrous  green,  and  all  except  the  middle  one 
tipped  with  white. 

MEGAPODID.E,  OR  MOUND-BIRD  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  Indian  and  Australian  birds  which  are  cele- 
brated for  building  large  mounds  of  vegetation  and  sand, 
in  which  they  deposit  their  eggs. 


RASORES  :    PHASIANID^E.  235 

PHASIANID.E  OR  PHEASANT  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  birds  which  have  the  legs,  toes,  and  nasal  fossae 
bare,  the  tarsus  in  the  male  with  one  or  more  spurs,  the 
hind  toe  elevated  above  the  others,  and  the  tail-feathers 
more  than  twelve.  It  includes  the  Turkeys,  Peacocks, 
Guinea  Fowls,  Jungle  Fowls,  Domestic  Fowls,  and  Pheas- 
ants. All  except  the  Turkeys  are  indigenous  to  the  Old 
World,  although  many  of  them  are  now  widely  distrib- 
uted over  the  globe. 

The  Genus  Meleagris  comprises  the  Turkeys,  of  which 
there  are  two  species,  both  indigenous  to  America. 

The  Wild  Turkey,  M.  gallopavo,  Linn.,  of  the  United 
States,  is  about  forty-eight  inches  long,  the  stretch  of 
wings  about  sixty  inches.  The  prevailing  color  is  copper- 
bronze  with  copper  and  green  reflections,  each  feather 
with  a  black  margin.  The  quills  are  brown  closely  barred 
with  white,  tail  chestnut  barred  with  black,  head  livid 
blue,  and  the  legs  red.  The  male  averages  fifteen  to 
eighteen  pounds'  weight,  and  the  female  about  nine 
pounds,  although  the  former,  in  some  cases,  attains  thirty 
to. forty  pounds.  The  great  size  and  beauty  of  this  bird, 
and  the  fact  of  its  being  the  origin  of  all  the  domestic 
varieties  of  turkeys  of  both  hemispheres,  together  with 
the  well-known  delicacy  of  its  flesh  as  an  article  of  food, 
render  it  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  this  country.  It 
is  rare  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  but  is  still  common  in  the 
regions  farther  west.  The  question  is  now  in  agitation 
whether  there  are  not  really  two  or  three  species  of  Wild 
Turkey  in  the  United  States. 

The  Ocellated  Turkey,  M.  ocellata,  of  Central  America, 
is  exceedingly  beautiful,  the  plumage  exhibiting  the  most 
brilliant  and  varied  metallic  reflections ;  and  the  tail  and 
tail-coverts  are  ornamented  with  four  series  of  large  ocel- 
lated  spots. 

The  Genus  Pavo  —  Peacocks — has  the  head  crested, 


236  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

and  the  tail  of  the  male  excessively  elongated.  The 
Common  Peacock,  P.  cristatus,  Linn.,  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  Genus  Numida,  comprising  the  Guinea  Fowls  of 
tropical  Africa,  has  the  frontal  bone  much  developed, 
producing  a  vertical  crest,  the  lower  jaw  with  two  fleshy 
lobes,  no  spur  on  the  tarsi,  and  the  tail  very  short. 

The  Common  Guinea  Fowl,  N.  meleagris,  Linn.,  of  the 
farm-yard,  is  known  by  every  one.  In  the  wild  state,  it 
lives  in  flocks,  and  prefers  the  vicinity  of  marshes. 

The  Genus  Callus  comprises  our  domestic  varieties  of 
the  Cock  kind,  and  the  Jungle  Fowl  of  India. 

The  domestic  Cock,  G.  domesticus,  Linn.,  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  This  bird  has  been  in  the 
possession  of  man  from  the  earliest  times,  and  the  varie- 
ties are  now  almost  endless.  They  have  all  sprung  from 
the  Jungle  Fowls  of  India,  of  which  there  are  many  spe- 
cies, all  of  which  bear  great  resemblance  to  our  domestic 
varieties. 

The  Genus  Phasiamis,  or  Pheasants,  has  the  tail  ex- 
cessively long,  the  feathers  of  which  overlap  like  tiles. 
There  are  several  species,  all  natives  of  Asia. 

The  Common  Pheasant,  P.  colchicus,  Linn.,  of  Europe, 
is  thirty-four  inches  long,  the  head  and  neck  of  metallic 
lustre,  and  the  rest  of  the  plumage  golden  fawn-color 
with  markings  of  green.  The  female  is  smaller,  and 
brownish.  This  bird,  now  found  throughout  temperate 
Europe,  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  the  banks  of 
the  Phasis,  a  river  of  Colchis. 

The  Golden  Pheasant,  P.  pictus,  Linn.,  of  China,  so  re- 
markable for  its  magnificent  plumage,  has  a  golden-colored 
crest,  the  neck  orange  speckled  with  black,  the  back  green, 
the  rump  yellow,  the  lower  parts  and  wings  red,  the  latter 
with  a  blue  spot,  and  the  long  tail  brown  spotted  with  gray. 

The  Argus  Pheasant,  P.  argus,  Linn,  of  India,  sur- 


RASORES:    TETRAONID^E.  237 

passes  in  size  and  splendor  all  others  of  this  genus.  The 
tail  is  very  long,  making  the  entire  length  of  the  bird  over 
sixty  inches.  The  secondaries  are  excessively  elongated 
and  widened,  and  covered  with  ocellated  spots,  so  that, 
when  the  wings  are  expanded,  the  appearance  of  this 
bird  is  splendid  beyond  description. 

TETRAONID.E,  OR  GROUSE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  gallinaceous  birds  which  have  the  nasal  fossae 
filled  and  covered  with  feathers,  tarsi  densely  feathered, 
toes  usually  naked  and  pectinated  along  their  edges. 

The  Genus  Tetrao  has  the  tarsus  feathered  to  and  be- 
tween the  bases  of  the  toes,  and  the  color  mainly  black. 
The  Grouse  of  this  genus  inhabit  wooded  regions. 

The  Dusky  Grouse,  T.  obscurus,  Say,  -of  Nebraska  and 
to  the  Cascade  Mountains,  is  twenty  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  nine  and  two  fifths  inches ;  the  tail 
has  twenty  feathers. 

The  Canada  Grouse  or  Spruce  Partridge,  T.  canaden- 
sis,  Linn.,  of  Northern  North  America,  is  over  sixteen 
inches  Ipng,  the  wing  nearly  seven  inches ;  and  the  tail 
with  sixteen  feathers.  The  feathers  above  are  banded 
with  plumbeous ;  beneath,  the  color  is  uniform  black,  with 
a'pectoral  white  band,  and  white  on  the  sides  of  the  belly. 

Franklin's  Grouse,  T.  Franklinii,  Douglas,  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  westward,  is  similar  to  the  preceding  one. 

The  Cock  of  the  Woods,  or  Capercailzie,  T.  iirogalhis, 
Linn.,  of  Europe,  is  larger  than  the  Turkey,  being  the 
largest  of  the  Gallinae. 

.  The  Black  Cock,  T.  tetrix,  Linn.,  is  another  European 
species,  about  the  size  of  the  domestic  Cock. 

The  Genus  Centrocercus  has  the  lower  throat  and  sides 
with  stiffened  spinous  feathers,  the  tail  excessively  length- 
ened, and  cuneate. 

The  Sage  Cock,  or  Cock  of  the  Plains,  C.  urophasianus, 
Sw.,  of  the  plains  of  the  northwest  portions  of  America, 


238  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

is  twenty-nine  inches  long,  and  the  wing  over  eleven 
inches  ;  the  upper  parts  mottled  with  black,  brown,  and 
brownish  yellow  ;  the  under  parts  black  and  white. 

The  Genus  Pedioccztes  has  the  central  tail-feathers 
lengthened. 

The  Sharp-tailed  Grouse,  P.  phasianellus ,  Baird,  of  the 
plains  of  Wisconsin  and  westward,  is  eighteen  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  eight  and  a  half  inches,  and  distin- 
guished by  the  tail,  which  has  eighteen  feathers,  the  cen- 
tral pair  elongated  beyond  the  rest  an  inch  or  more. 

The  Genus  Cupidonia  has  the  tail  short,  the  bare  space 
of  the  neck  concealed  by  a  tuft  of  lanceolate  feathers. 

The  Pinnated  Grouse,  or  Prairie  Chicken,  C,  cupido, 
Baird,  of  the  Western  prairies,  is  sixteen  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  nearly  nine  inches  ;  the  colors  whitish 
brown  and  brownish  yellow,  the  feathers  with  transverse 
bars  of  brown.  A  tuft  of  long,  pointed  feathers  on  each 
side  of  the  neck  covers  a  naked,  orange-colored  air-sack, 
which  is  capable  of  great  inflation.  These  air-sacks  en- 
able the  males  to  produce  the  peculiar  booming  sounds 
which  are  always  heard  during  the  pairing  season.  When 
the  air-receptacles  are  inflated,  the  bird  lowers  his  head 
to  the  ground,  and,  opening  its  bill,  utters  a  succession 
of  sounds,  going  from  loud  to  low  till  the  air  of  the  sacks 
is  exhausted ;  then  immediately  erecting  itself,  and  inflat- 
ing the  sacks,  it  proceeds  as  before.  These  sounds  may 
be  heard  a  mile  or  more.  In  autumn  and  winter,  they 
associate  in  flocks  of  hundreds.  They  are  easily  tamed. 
Audubon  caught  sixty  in  the  early  autumn,  and,  having- 
clipped  the  tips  of  their  wings,  put  them  in  a  garden  and 
orchard  of  four  acres ;  within  a  week  they  were  not 
frightened  at  his  approach,  and  before  winter  was  over 
they  would  eat  from  the  hand. 

The  Genus  Bonasa  has  eighteen  tail-feathers,  the  lower 
half  of  the  tarsi  naked,  the  naked  space  upon  the  neck 


RASORES  :    TETRAONIDiE.  239 

covered  by  a  tuft  of  broad,  soft  feathers,  and  the  head 
with  a  soft  crest. 

The  Ruffed  Grouse,  or  Partridge,  B.  umbellus,  Steph., 
of  the  Eastern  United  States  and  westward,  is  eighteen 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  over  seven  inches ;  the  color 
reddish  brown  or  gray  above,  the  back  with  spots  of  light- 
er ;  the  under  parts  whitish  barred  with  dull  brown  ;  the 
feathers  of  the  ruff  are  black  ;  the  beautiful  tail  is  tipped 
with  gray,  and  has  a  subterminal  bar  of  black.  This  bird 
prefers  the  borders  of  forests,  open  woods,  thickets  of 
evergreens  and  birches,  and  the  vicinity  of  brooks  shaded 
with  alder.  Nothing  can  excel  the  grace  with  which  it 
moves  upon  the  ground.  It  walks  with  a  proud  step, 
elevated  head,  the  ruffs  more  or  less  raised,  and  its  exqui- 
sitely beautiful  tail  partly  spread.  It  poises  itself  a  second 
or  two  on  one  foot,  then  on  the  other,  and  at  almost  every 
movement  utters  a  soft  cluck.  If  disturbed,  it  lowers  its 
head,  spreads  its  tail  wider,  and  runs  rapidly  into  the 
thickest  bushes.  If  there  be  no  hiding-place  near,  it  at 
once  takes  wing  with  the  loud  whirring  which  all  have 
heard  who  have  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting  its  favorite 
resorts.  According  to  Audubon,  these  sounds  are  never 
heard  when  the  bird  rises  of  its  own  accord,  but  only 
when  flushed  by  a  real  or  supposed  enemy.  The  flight 
is  straight,  rather  low,  and  under  ordinary  circumstances 
not  more  than  one  or  two  hundred  yards  at  a  time.  If, 
when  flushed,  it  alights  upon  a  tree,  as  is  often  the  case 
in  regions  where  it  has  not  been  much  hunted,  it  will 
generally  be  found,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  farthest  from  the 
pursuer,  and  close  to  the  trunk,  and  standing  so  still  and 
erect  that  one  can  readily  mistake  it  for  a  stump  of  a 
broken  limb. 

The  Oregon  Grouse,  B.  Sabinii,  Baird,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  similar  to  the  preceding  one. 

The    Genus    Lagopus  —  Ptarmigans  —  has    the    legs 


240 


VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 


closely  feathered  to  the  claws.  The  members  of  this 
genus  are  snow-white  in  winter ;  in  summer,  more  or 
less  marked  with  black,  brown,  and  yellow. 

The  Willow  Grouse,  or  White  Ptarmigan,  L.  albus, 
Aud.,  of  Northern  America,  rare  in  the  United  States,  is 
fifteen  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  about  eight  inches. 
The  Rock  Ptarmigan,  L.  rupestris,  Leach,  of  Arctic 
America,  is  fourteen  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
seven  and  a  half  inches. 

The  White-tailed  Ptarmigan,  L.  leucurus,  Sw.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  and  the  American  Ptarmigan,  L. 
AmericamtSy  And.,  of  the  Baffin's  Bay  region,  are  addi- 
tional species. 

PERDICID/E,  OR  PARTRIDGE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  birds  which  differ  from  the  grouse  in  being 
much  smaller,  and  in  their  bare  tarsi  and  naked  nasal 
fossae.  They  are  very  numerous,  and  widely  distributed, 
and  not  less  than  forty  species  belong  to  America. 

The  Genus  Ortyx  has  the  bill  stout,  head  without  a 
crest,  and  the  tail  short. 

The  Quail,  O.  virgi- 
nianus,  Bonap.,  of  the 
United  States  east  of 
the  High  Central  Plains, 
is  ten  inches  long,  the 
wing  nearly  four  and 
three  quarters  inches; 
prevailing  color  above, 
brownish  .red  ;  the  un- 
der parts  white,  tinged 
with  brown  before,  and 
marked  with  obtusely 
V-shaped  spots  of  black; 
the  head  is  beautifully 
Quail,  o.  vir£inianus,  Bonap.  marked  with  pure  white 


Fig.  127, 


RASORES  :  PERDICID^E. 


241 


Fig.  128. 


and  black.  The  female  has  the  white  markings  of  the 
head  replaced  by  brownish  yellow,  and  the  black  want- 
ing. In  New  England,  New  York,  and  westward,  this 
bird  is  called  the  Quail ;  but  in  Pennsylvania  and  south- 
ward it  is  called  the  Partridge.  Its  clear  whistle  is  com- 
posed of  three  notes,  the  first  and  last  of  equal  length, 
the  first  being  loudest.  The  nest  is  built  near  a  tuft  of 
grass ;  eggs  ten  to  eighteen,  pure  white. 

The  Texas  Quail,  O.  texanus,  Lawr.,  of  Texas,  is  very 
similar  to  the  preceding. 

The  Mountain  Quail, 
O.  pictus\  Baird,  of  the 
Mountain  ranges  of  Ore- 
gon and  California,  is  ten 
and  a  half  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  five  inches. 

The  Genus  Lophortyx 
has  the  head  with  a  crest 
of  lengthened  feathers 
springing  from  the  ver- 
tex, the  shafts  in  the  same 
vertical  plane. 

The  California  Quail, 
L.  calif ornicus,  Bonap.,  of 
California  and  Oregon,  is 
nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  over  four  and  a 
quarter  inches ;  the  forward  half  of  the  body,  and  upper 
parts,  plumbeous ;  the  crest  black. 

Gambel's  Partridge,  L.  Gambelli,  Nutt,  of  the  Rio 
Grande  to  California,  is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  four  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Callipepla  has  a  broad,  short,  depressed  crest 
of  soft,  thick  feathers.  It  is  represented  by  the  Scaled 
or  Blue  Partridge,  C.  squamata,  Gray,  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

The  Genus  Cyrtonyx  has  the  wings  long  and  broad, 


Mountain  Quail,  or  Plumed  Partridge, 
Oreortyx  picttis,  Baird. 


II 


242  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

arid  the  coverts  so  much  developed  as  to  conceal  the 
quills.  It  is  represented  by  the  Massena  Partridge,  C. 
massena,  Gould,  of  the  Upper  Rio  Grande. 

The  Genus  Pcrdix  comprises  the  Gray  Partridge,  P. 
cinerea,  of  Europe,  which  is  about  twelve  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Coturnix  includes  the  Common  European 
Quail,  C.  dactylisonans,  which  is  seven  inches  long. 

SUB-SECTION   V. 

THE  ORDER  OF  CURSORES,   OR  RUNNERS. 

THE  Order  of  Cursores  comprises  birds  of  great  size, 
with  the  neck  and  legs  very  long,  and  the  wings  rudi- 
mentary. 

STRUTHIONIM:,  OR  OSTRICH  FAMILY.  — This  Family 
comprises  the  Ostriches,  Cassowaries,  Apteryx,  and  the 
like.  They  run  with  great  speed,  but  cannot  fly. 

The  Genus  Struthio  is  represented  by  the  Eastern  Os- 
trich, 5.  camelusy  Linn.,  of  the  deserts  of  Africa  and  Asia, 
which  is  six  to  eight  feet  high.  Its  feet  have  but  two 
toes,  and  the  outer  one  is  only  half  the  length  of  the 
inner,  and  destitute  of  a  nail.  It  is  so  swift  of  foot  that 
no  animal  can  overtake  it  in  running.  Its  eggs  weigh 
about  three  pounds  each,  and  are  laid  in  the  sand,  and, 
in  the  hot  regions,  left  to  hatch,  but  in  cooler  regions  are 
brooded  with  care,  and  defended  with  great  courage. 

The  Genus  Rhea  comprises  the  American  Ostrich,  of 
South  America,  which  is  much  smaller  than  the  preced- 
ing, and  particularly  distinguished  by  having  three  toes, 
all  armed  with  nails  ;  color,  gray.  It  is  said  that  several 
of  them  lay  their  eggs  in  one  and  the  same  nest. 

The  Genus  Casuarius  has  even  shorter  wings  than  the 
Ostriches,  and  feathers  which  resemble  pendent  hairs, 
and  three  toes,  each  furnished  with  a  nail. 

The  Galeated  Cassowary,  C.  galeatits,  of  the   Indian 


CURSORES  :    OTIDJE.  243 

Archipelago,  is  about  five  feet  high,  and  the  .head  sur- 
mounted by  a  horny  crest.  The  wings  have  some  stems 
without  barbs,  which  seem  to  serve  as  weapons  of  de- 
fence. 

The  Emeu  or  New  Holland  Cassowary,  C.  novce  hol- 
landia,  Lath.,  of  Australia,  is  five  to  seven  feet  high. 

The  Genus  Apteryx  comprises  New  Zealand  species, 
which,  in  addition  to  their  rudimentary  wings,  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  elongated,  slender  bill,  which  bears 
the  nostrils  at  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible. 

OTID.E,  OR  BUSTARD  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
birds  which  have  the  massive  carriage  of  the  Gallinae, 
the  long  neck  and  legs  of  the  Ostriches,  while  in  the 
absence  of  a  thumb  the  smaller  species  especially  ap- 
proximate the  Plovers  ;  and  their  wings  are  short  —  not 
rudimentary  —>-  and  seldom  used  except  to  assist  in  run- 
ning. They  belong  to  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  Otis  is 
the  only  genus. 

The  Great  Bustard,  O.  tarda,  Linn.,  is  the  largest  bird 
of  Europe,  —  the  male  attaining  the  length  of  four  feet, 
and  the  weight  of  thirty  pounds  or  more. 

SUB-SECTION   VI. 

THE  ORDER  OF  GRALLATORES,  OR  WADERS. 

THE  Order  of  Grallatores  comprises  birds  which  have 
the  bill,  neck,  and  legs  very  long,  tail  short,  and  the  legs 
bare  for  some  distance  above  the  tarsal  joint.  They  live 
near  the  water,  upon  shores  or  marshes,  or  more  rarely 
upon  dry  plains.  The  Grallatores  may  be  divided  into 
two  Sub-Orders,  —  Herodiones  and  Grallae. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Herodiones  comprises  those  which 
have  the  bill  thick  at  the  base,  much  longer  than  the 
head,  the  face  more  or  less  naked,  and  the  hind  toe  gen- 
erally lengthened  and  nearly  on  the  same  level  with  the 


244  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

anterior  ones ;  and  the  young  are  hatched  in  a  weak 
condition,  and  reared  in  a  nest.  It  includes  the  Gruidse 
or  Crane  Family,  Aramidae  or  Courlan  Family,  Ardeidae 
or  Heron  Family,  Cancromidaa  or  Boat-bill  Family,  Cin- 
conidas  or  Stork  Family,  Tantalidae  or  Ibis  Family,  Plata- 
leidse  or  Spoon-bill  Family.,  and  Phoenicopteridae  or  Fla- 
mingo Family. 

GRUIDSE,  OR  CRANE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
very  large  birds,  which  have  the  head  more  or  less  bare, 
the  toes  connected  by  a  basal  membrane,  and  the  hind 
toe  short  and  much  elevated.  They  inhabit  dry  plains. 

The  Genus  Grus  is  the  only  one  represented  in  North 
America. 

The  White  or  Whooping  Crane,  G.  americanus,  Ord, 
of  Florida  and  Texas,  and  occasionally  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  is  fifty-two  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty-four 
inches. 

The  Sandhill  Crane,  or  Brown  Crane,  G.  canadensis, 
Temm.,  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  westward,  is  forty- 
eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty-two  inches.  It  is 
exceedingly  wary,  and  its  sight  and  hearing  are  acute. 
When  wounded,  it  is  dangerous  to  approach  it,  as  a  single 
thrust  from  its  bill  may  inflict  a  severe  wound. 

The  Little  Crane,  G.  fraterculus,  Cass.,  of  New  Mexico, 
is  seventeen  and  a  half  inches  long. 

ARAMID^E,  OR  COURLAN  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  which  have  the  head  feathered  to  the  bill, 
toes  cleft  to  the  base,  and  the  hind  toe  long. 

The  Genus  Aramus  is  represented  by  the  Courlan,  or 
Crying  Bird,  A.  giganteus,  Baird,  of  Florida  and  the  West 
Indies,  which  is  twenty-seven  and  a  half  inches  long. 

ARDEIDAE,  OR  HERON  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises waders  which  have  the  bill  acuminate,  compressed, 
acute,  and  the  edges  usually  notched  at  the  end ;  the 
frontal  feathers  generally  extending  beyond  the  nostrils, 


GRALLATORES  :   ARDEID.E.  245 

the  inner  toe  connected  by  a  basal  web  to  the  outer ;  the 
claws  acute,  and  the  middle  one  pectinated  on  its  inner 
edge.  It  is  represented  all  over  the  globe. 

The  Genus  Demigretta  has  a  full  occipital  crest  of  elon- 
gated feathers,  and  the  back  has  free  plumes  longer  than 
the  tail. 

Peale's  Egret,  D.  Pealii,  Baird,  of  South  Florida,  is 
thirty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  thirteen  inches.  The 
color  is  pure  white,  the  terminal  half  of  the  bill  black. 

Reddish  Egret,  D.  rufa,  Baird,  of  the  Gulf  States,  is 
thirty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twelve  and  a  half  inches. 

Louisiana  Heron,  D.  ludoviciana,  Baird,  of  the  South- 
ern States,  is  twenty-five  inches  long,  and  the  wing  ten 
and  a  half  inches  ;  slate-blue  above  ;  rump,  under  parts, 
and  the  longest  occipital  feathers,  white. 

The  Genus  Garzetta  has  a  full  occipital  crest ;  middle 
of  the  back  with  long  plumes  reaching  to  the  tail,  and 
recurved  at  the  tips. 

The  Snowy  Heron,  G.  candidissima,  Bonap.,  of  the  coast 
of  the  Middle  and  Gulf  States,  and  across  to  California, 
is  twenty-four  inches  long,  and  the  wing  over  ten  inches. 

The  Genus  Pferodias  has  no  crest,  the  back  with  plumes 
longer  than  the  tail,  and  curving  gently  downwards. 

The  White  Heron,  H.  egretta,  Gray,  of  the  Southern 
States;  and  accidental  in  New  England,  is  thirty-nine 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  fifteen  and  a  half  inches.  The 
California  White  Heron  is  probably  a  larger  variety. 

The  Genus  Ardea  has-  the  bill  very  thick,  occiput  with 
a  few  elongated  feathers,  and  no  dorsal  plumes. 

The  Great  Blue  Heron  or  Crane,  A.  herodias,  Linn.,  of 
North  America  and  the  West  Indies,  is  forty-two  inches 
long,  the  wing  eighteen  and  a  half  inches,  and  the  bill 
five  and  a  half  inches.  This  bird  frequents  ponds  and 
creeks,  where  it  may  be  seen  standing  upon  a  rock  or 
stump  for  hours,  watching  for  fish,  upon  which  it  feeds. 


246 


VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 


When  a  fish  comes  within  reach,  it  instantly  transfixes 
it  with  its  sharp  bill,  and  afterwards  swallows  it  whole. 


Fig.  129. 


Great  Blue  Heron,  A.  herodias,  Linn. 


It  also  feeds  upon  reptiles,  mice,  and  young  birds.  When 
wounded,  it  at  once  prepares  for  defence,  and  the  dog  or 
man  who  comes  within  reach  is  sure  to  receive  a  severe 


GRALLATORES  :  ARDEID.E. 

wound ;  and  the  danger  is  greater,,  as  these  birds  gen- 
erally aim  at  the  eye.  The  nest  is  placed  on  a  large 
tree  in  a  dense  swamp.  It  is  large  and  flat,  built  of 
sticks,  and  matted  with  grass  and  mosses.  The  eggs 
are  three,  dull  bluish-white. 

The  Florida  Heron,  A.  Wurdmanii,  Baird,  of  South 
Florida,  is  forty-nine  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Audubonia  comprises  the  Great  White 
Heron,  A.  occidentalis,  Bonap.,  of  South  Florida  and  Cuba, 
which  is  forty-five  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Florida  has  the  bill  convex  above,  straight 
below,  and  very  acute. 

The  Blue  Heron,  F.  c&rulea,  Baird,  of  the  South  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  States,  is  twenty-two  inches  long,  the 
wing  eleven  inches ;  the  color  slate-blue. 

The  Genus  Ardetta  has  claws  long  and  acute,  body 
compressed,  the  lower  neck  bare  of  feathers  behind,  and 
the  tail  with  ten  feathers.  It  embraces  the  smallest 
known  herons. 

The  Least  Bittern,  A.  exilis,  Gray,  of  North  America, 
is  thirteen  inches  long,  the  wing  four  and  three  quarters 
inches  ;  the  head  above  and  back  dark  glossy  green  ;  the 
upper  neck,  shoulders,  greater  coverts,  and  outer  webs  of 
some  of  the  tertials,  purplish  cinnamon.  The  female  has 
the  green  of  the  head  and  back  replaced  by  chestnut. 
The  nest  is  built  on  low  bushes  ;  eggs  three  to  four,  dull 
yellowish-green. 

The  Genus  Botaurus  has  the  plumage  loose,  and  the 
sexes  similar. 

The  Bittern  or  Stake-driver,  B.  lentiginosus,  Steph.,  of 
all  North  America,  is  twenty-six  and  a  half  inches  long, 
the  wing  eleven  inches ;  the  color  is  brownish  yellow 
finely  varied  with  dark  brown  and  brownish  red ;  and 
there  is  a  broad,  black  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  neck. 
It  seldom  flies  till  you  are  close  upon  it,  and  then  it 
moves  off  very  sluggishly. 


248  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

Fig.  130. 


Bittern  or  Stake-driver,  B.  lentlginosus,  Steph. 

The  Genus  Butorides  has  the  bill  gently  curved  from 
the  base  above,  and  the  tail  with  twelve  feathers.  It  is 
represented  by  the  Green  Heron  or  Fly-up-the-Creek,  B. 
mrescens,  Bonap.,  of  the  United  States  generally,  which 
is  fifteen  inches  long,  the  wing  seven  and  a  hall  inches. 

The  Genus  Nyctiardca  has  the  bill  very  stout,  the  end 
of  the  upper  mandible  gently  decurved,  and  an  occipital 
plume  of  three  feathers  rolled  together. 

The  Night  Heron,  N.  Gardeni,  Baird,  of  the  United 
States  generally,  is  twenty-five  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
twelve  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  head  above  and  middle  of 
the  back  steel-green  ;  wings  and  tail  ashy  blue ;  forehead, 
the  long  occipital  feathers,  and  under  parts,  white.  This 
species  breeds  in  communities,  making  nests  in  trees 
around  stagnant  ponds  or  in  swamps  ;  eggs  four,  light 
sea-green.  These  birds  perform  their  migrations  in  the 
night,  at  which  times  their  loud,  hoarse  note  may  be 
heard,  which  has  been  represented  by  the  syllable  qua. 

The  Genus  Nyctherodius  has  the  bill  very  thick. 

The  Yellow-crowned  Night  Heron,  N.  violaceus,  Reich., 


GRALLATORES  I    CINCO 


of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Sta 
inches  long,  .and  the  wing  twelve 

CANCROMID^E,  OR  BOAT-BILL  FAMILY. 
comprises  waders  which  resemble  herons  in  all  but  the 
bill,  which  appears  like  that  of  a  heron  very  much  flat- 
tened. Its  shape  has  been  aptly  compared  to  a  boat  with 
the  keel  upward. 

The  Genus  Cancroma  is  represented  by  the  Boat-bill, 
C.  cochlearia,  of  South  America,  which  is  about  the  size 
of  the  domestic  hen.  It  lives  near  the  water,  and  feeds 
upon  fish. 

CINCONID^E,  OR  STORK  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  in- 
cludes the  Stork  of  the  Old  World,  and  the  Jabirus  of 
both  hemispheres.  They  have  the  bill  thicker  than  in 
Ardeidae,  and  nearly  equal  membranes  between  the  bases 
of  the  toes. 

The  Genus  Cinconia  comprises  the  White  Stork,  C. 
alba,  Cuv.,  of  Europe,  which  is  forty-  two  inches  long, 
white,  with  the  quills  of  the  wings  black,  and  the  feet 
and  bill  red.  It  is  held  in  high  estimation  on  account  of 
its  destruction  of  noxious  reptiles.  It  prefers  to  build  its 
nest  in  towers  and  steeples,  and  returns  to  the  same  spot 
year  after  year. 

The  Pouched  Stork,  C.  marabou,  Temm.,  and  C.  argala, 
Temm.,  respectively  of  the  tropical  regions  of  Africa  and 
of  India,  have  an  appendage  under  the  throat  resembling 
a  thick  sausage.  These  birds  are  six  feet  high  as  they 
ordinarily  stand,  and  seven  when  the  neck  is  fully  erect, 
and  the  expanse  of  wings  is  fifteen  feet.  They  are  black 
above  and  white  below,  and  are  popularly  known  as  Ad- 
jutants. The  beautiful  plumes  known  as  Marabouts  are 
obtained  from  under  the  wing  of  these  birds. 

The  Genus  Jabiru  comprises  very  large  birds,  which 
differ  from  the  Storks  in  having  the  extremity  of  the  bill 
curved  upward. 

ii* 


250 


VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 


Fig.  131. 


TANTALID.E,  OR  IBIS  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
waders  with  the  bill  very  long,  rounded,  much  attenuated 
and  decurved,  and  the  toes  with  a  basal  web. 

The  Genus  Tantalus  has  the  head,  in  the  adult,  en- 
tirely destitute  of  feathers. 

The  Wood  Ibis,  T. 
loculator,  Linn.,  of 
the  Southern  States, 
is  forty -five  inches 
long,  the  wing  eigh- 
teen ahd  a  half  inch- 
es ;  the  color  white, 
quills  and  tail  a  me- 
tallic blackish-green. 
Birds  of  this  species 
live  in  flocks,  feeding 
upon  fish  and  aquat- 
ic reptiles.  Finding 
shallows  that  abound 
in  fish,  they  move 

T.  locidator,  Linn.-^naL  size.  about    till    the    Water 

has  become  muddy,  which  causes  the  fish  to  rise  to  the 
surface,  when  they  are  struck  by  the  bills  of  the  Ibis, 
and  killed.  Soon  the  surface  is  covered  with  dead  fishes 
and  reptiles,  and  the  birds  swallow  them  until  they  have 
gorged  themselves,  after  which  they  go  to  the  shore, 
and  arrange  themselves  in  rows,  with  their  breasts  turned 
towards  the  sun.  It  is  dangerous  to  approach  them  when 
wounded,  as  they  bite  severely. 

The  Genus  Ibis  has  the  bill  very  long,  moderately  thick- 
ened at  the  base,  and  curves  downward  towards  the  tip. 

The  Red  or  Scarlet  Ibis,  or  Pink  Curlew,  /.  rubra, 
Vieill,  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  acciden- 
tally in  the  United  States,  is  twenty-eight  inches  long, 
the  wing  nearly  eleven,  and  the  bill  nearly  seven  inches. 


Wood  Ibis 


GRALLATORES  I  PHCENICOPTERID^.        25  I 

The  White  Ibis,  or  White  Curlew,  /.  alba,  Vieill.,  of  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  rarely  northward,  is 
twenty-five  inches  long,  the  wing  eleven  and  a  quarter 
inches,  and  the  bill  seven  inches ;  color  white.  This  spe- 
cies feeds  largely  upon  crawfish,  which  it  often  secures 
by  a  curious  process.  The  crawfish,  in  dry  weather, 
burrows  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  in  all 
cases  deep  enough  to  reach  damp  earth  or  water.  The 
Ibis  carefully  approaches  the  hole,  drops  in  pieces  of 
earth,  and  then  retires  a  step,  and  silently  awaits  the 
result.  Soon  the  crawfish  begins  to  remove  the  earth 
thus  thrown  in,  but  no  sooner  does  it  come  to  the  en- 
trance of  its  burrow  than  it  is  seized. 

The  Glossy  Ibis,  7.  Ordii,  Bonap.,  found  sparingly 
throughout  the  United  States,  is  twenty  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  ten  inches  ;  color  chestnut. 

PLATALEID.E,  OR  SPOON-BILL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  large  birds  which  have  the  bill  completely  de- 
pressed and  very  broad,  and  widening  at  the  rounded 
tip.  Seven  or  eight  species  are  known. 

The  Genus  Platella  comprises  our  only  species,  the 
Rosy  Spoonbill,  P.  ajaja,  Linn.,  of  the  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  States,  which  is  thirty  inches  long,  the  wing 
fifteen  inches,  and  the  bill  seven  ;  color  rose-red. 

PHCENICOPTERID^:,  OR  FLAMINGO  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  birds  with  the  legs  and  neck  excessively 
elongated,  toes  fully  webbed,  bill  bent  abruptly  in  the 
middle,  and  the  edges  lamellated.  Some  place  this  fam- 
ily here,  and  others  put  it  in  with  Anseres.  , 

The  Genus  Phoenicopterus  is  represented  by  the  Fla- 
mingo, P.  ruber,  Linn.,  of  the  warmer  parts  of  America, 
which  is  forty-five  inches  long,  the  wing  sixteen  and  a 
half  inches  ;  color  scarlet. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Grallae  comprises  waders  which  have 
the  head  feathered  to  the  bill, — the  latter,  when  much 


252  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

longer  than  the  head,  slender  and  contracted  at  the  base, 
—  and  whose  young  run  about  and  pick  up  food  as  soon 
as  hatched.  Instead  of  building  their  nests  upon  trees  or 
bushes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Herodiones,  the  members 
of  this  group,  with  some  exceptions,  lay  their  eggs  in  a 
cavity  scooped  out  in  the  sand. 

The  Grallae  comprise  the  Charadridae  or  Plover  Family, 
Haematopodidae  or  Turnstone  Family,  Recurvirostridae 
or  Avoset  Family,  Phalaropidae  or  Phalarope  Family, 
Scolopacidae  or  Snipe  Family,  and  Rallidas  or  Rail  Fam- 
ily. 

CHARADRID.E,  OR  PLOVER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises waders  which  have  the  bill  rather  cylindrical,  as 
long  as  the  head  or  shorter,  culmen  much  indented  op- 
posite the  nostrils,  hind  toe  rarely  present  and  when 
present  only  rudimentary,  and  the  outer  and  middle  toes 
more  or  less  united  by  a  membrane.  The  wings,  when 
folded  back,  reach  beyond  the  tail ;  the  head  very  large, 
and  the  neck  short  and  thick. 

rig.  132.  The  Genus  Charadrius  is 

represented  by  the  Golden 
Plover,  C.  virginicuSy  Borck., 
of  both  hemispheres,  which 
is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long, 
the  wing  seven  inches  ;  the 
upper  parts  brownish  black, 
with  numerous  spots  of  gold- 
en yellow  ;  under  parts  black, 
with  a  brownish  lustre. 

Golden  Plover,  C.  rirginic**,  Borck.  The    Qenus  ^^///M"    haS 

the  plumage  without  spots,  the  neck  and  head  generally 
with  dark  bands. 

The  Kill-deer,  A.  vociferus,  Cass.,  of  North  and  South 
America,  is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  six 
and  a  half  inches ;  the  head  above  and  the  upper  parts  of 


GRALLATORES  :  CHARADRID^E.  253 

the  body,  light  brown ;  the  rump  and  upper  tail-coverts 
rufous ;  the  front,  and  lines  over  and  under  the  eye,  white  ; 
above  the  white  band  in  front  is  one  of  black ;  a  black 
band  on  the  breast,  and  a  black  ring  around  the  neck ; 
the  throat  is  white,  and  this  color  extends  upwards  around 
the  neck ;  the  under  parts,  with  the  exceptions  named,  are 
also  white.  It  takes  its  popular  name  from  its  peculiar 
note. 

The  Mountain  Plover,  A.  montanus,  Cass.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  about  nine  inches  long,  the  wing  six 
inches. 

Wilson's  Plover,  A.  Wilsonius,  Cass.,  of  the  Atlantic 
Southern  States  and  South  America,  is  smaller  than  the 
preceding. 

The  King  Plover,  or  Semi-palmated  Plover,  A.  semi- 
palmatus.  Cab.,  of  all  temperate  North  America,  is  about 
seven  inches  long,  and  the  wing  four  and  three  quarters 
inches ;  the  front,  throat,  a  ring  around  the  neck,  and 
the  under  parts,  white  ;  a  band  of  black  across  the  breast, 
which  extends  around  the  back  of  the  neck  below  the 
white  ring ;  a  band  from  the  base  of  the  bill  under  the 
eye,  and  a  wide  frontal  band  above  the  white  one,  black  ; 
the  upper  parts  light  ashy-brown  with  a  tinge  of  olive. 

The,  Piping  Plover,  A.  melodus,  Cab.,  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  North  America,  is  seven  inches  long,  the  wing 
four  and  a  half  inches ;  the  forehead,  a  ring  round  the 
neck,  and  entire  under  parts,  white ;  a  black  band  in 
front  above  the  white  one,  and  a  black  band  encircling 
the  neck  before  and  behind,  immediately  below  the  ring 
of  white ;  the  head  above  and  upper  parts  of  the  body 
light  brownish-cinereous  ;  the  quills  dark. brown  marked 
with  white ;  the  tail  tipped  with  white,  and  the  outer 
feathers. white,  and  middle  ones  with  a  subterminal  band 
of  black. 

The  Western  Plover,  A.  nivosus,  Cass.,  of  California,  is 


254  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

six  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  three  and  three 
quarters  inches. 

The  Genus  Squatarola  has  a  rudimentary  hincl  toe. 

The  Black-bellied  Plover,  5.  helvetica,  Cuv.,  of  all  North 
America  and  the  sea-coasts  of  all  countries,  is  eleven  and 
a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  seven  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Aphriza  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head, 
the  hind  toe  distinct,  and  tail  even. 

The  Surf-bird,  A.  virgata,  Gray,  of  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  is  ten  inches  long,  and  the  wing  seven  inches. 

H^MATOPODID^E,  OR  TURNSTONE  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  waders  which  have  the  bill  compressed. 

The  Genus  Hczmatopus — Oyster-catchers — has  the  bill 
longer  than  the  tarsus,  hind  toe  wanting,  tarsus  reticu- 
lated anteriorly,  and  the  middle  and  outer  toes  connected 
by  a  basal  membrane. 

The  Oyster-catcher,  H.  palliatus,  Temm.,  of  the  Atlan- 
tic coast,  is  seventeen  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  ten  inches  ;  the  upper  parts  light  ashy-brown  ;  un- 
der parts  and  upper  tail-coverts,  and  a  wide  diagonal  band 
across  the  wings,  white. 

Backman's  Oyster-catcher,  H.  niger,  Pallas,  of  the  west- 
ern coast  of  the  United  States,  is  seventeen  inches  long, 
the  wing  ten  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  head  and  neck 
brownish  black ;  all  other  parts  of  the  plumage  dark 
brown  ;  the  bill  bright  red,  legs  pale  reddish. 

The  Dusky  Oyster-catcher,  H.  ater,  Vieill.,  of  Chili  and 
perhaps  of  the  western  coast  of  North  America,  is  larger 
than  either  of  the  preceding. 

The  Genus  Strepsilas  —  Turnstones  —  has  the  bill  ta- 
pering to  rather  a  blunt  point,  the  tip  slightly  bent  up- 
ward, and  the  hind  toe  lengthened. 

The  Turnstone,  5.  interpres,  Illig.,  of  North  America, 
and  of  nearly  every  country,  is  nine  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  six  inches ;  the  upper  parts  irregularly  varie- 


GRALLATORES  I    RECURVIROSTRID^. 


255 


gated  with  black,  dark  rufous, 

and  white  ;  the  abdomen,  under 

wing,  and  tail-coverts,  rump,  and 

back,  white  ;  the  head  and  neck 

above  generally  white,  with  spots 

and  stripes  of  brownish   black 

on  the  crown  and  occiput ;  the 

throat    is   white   with    a   black 

stripe  on  each  side  connecting       Turnstone,  s.  interpret,  iiu& 

with  a  black  patch  on  the  breast. 

The  Black  Turnstone,  S.  melanocephala,  Vig.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  darker  than  the  preceding  one. 

RECURVIROSTRIM:,  OR  AVOSET  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  birds  which  are  at  once  distinguished  »by 
their  excessively  elongated  legs,  long  and  slender  neck, 
and  long  and  slender  bill. 

The  Genus  Recurvirostra  has  the  bill  extended  into  a 
fine  point,  and  recurved  at  the  tip,  and  toes  webbed. 

The  American  Avoset,  R.  americana,  Gm.,  of  all  North 
America,  is  seventeen  inch- 
es long,  the  wing  about 
eight  and  a  half  inches ;  the 
head  and  neck  pale  reddish- 
brown  ;  back,  wing-coverts, 
and  quills,  black;  other  parts 
white. 

The  Genus  Himantopus 
has  the  bill  nearly  straight. 
It  is  represented  by  the 
Black-necked  Stilt,  H.  ni- 
gricollis,  Vieill.,  of  North 
America,  which  is  fourteen 
inches  long,  the  wing  about 
eight  and  a  half  inches. 


Fig.  134. 


Black-necked  Stilt,  H.  nigricollis,  Vieill. 


PHALAROPID.E,  OR  PHALAROPE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 


256  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

comprises  waders  which  have  the  lateral  groove  of  the 
bill  extending  nearly  to  the  tip,  toes  with  a  lateral  mar- 
gin, the  hinder  with  a  feeble  lobe,  and  the  feathers  of  the 
breast  compact. 

The  Genus  Phalaropus  —  Phalaropes  —  has  the  mem- 
brane generally  more  or  less  scalloped  at  the  joints. 

•  Wilson's  Phalarope,  P.  Wilsonii,  Sab.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wings  five  and 
a  half  inches  ;  the  back,  wings,  and  tail,  cinereous ;  rump 
and  upper  tail-coverts,  and  under  parts,  white  ;  a  wide 
stripe  behind  the  eye  blackish  ;  the  neck  before,  and  a 
stripe  running  upwards  to  the  back,  bright  reddish-brown. 

The  Northern  Phalarope,  P.  hyperboreus,  Temm.,  of 
nearly  all  countries,  is  seven  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
four  and  a  half  inches ;  the  bill  short,  straight,  and 
pointed ;  upper  parts  dark ;  lower,  white ;  and  the  neck 
with  a  ring  of  bright  ferruginous. 

The  Red  Phalarope,  P.  fulicarius,  Bonap.,  of  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  is 
seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  and  a 
quarter  inches  ;  the  under  parts  deep  brownish-red  ;  dark 
above. 

SCOLOPACID^E,  OR  SNIPE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises waders  which  have  the  bill  generally  longer  than 
the  head,  and  the  hind  toe  generally  present. 

The  Genus  Philohela  —  Woodcocks  —  has  the  body 
very  full,  head,  bill,  and  eyes  very  large,  wings  short  and 
rounded,  and  the  toes  cleft  to  the  base. 

The  American  Woodcock,  P.  minor,  Gray,  of  Eastern 
North  America,  is  eleven  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five 
and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the  bill  very  long,  the  upper  man- 
dible longer  than  the  under,  and  fitted  to  it  at  the  tip ; 
the  eyes  far  from  the  bill,  and  the  tail  short ;  the  occiput 
with  three  transverse  bands  of  black  alternating  with 
three  of  pale  yellowish-rufous  ;  the  upper  parts  of  the 


GRALLATORES:   SCOLOPACID^S. 

body  variegated  with  ashy 
reddish  and  black ;  the  under 
parts  pale  rufous,  bill  brown, 
and  legs  pale  reddish.  The 
Woodcock  is  mainly  noctur- 
nal in  its  habits,  seldom  tak- 
ing wing  in  the  full  light 

Of  day  UnleSS  disturbed.        It         American  Woodcock,  P.  minor,  Gray. 

walks  about,  however,  and  feeds  by  day  as  well  as  by 
night.  Its  food  is  mainly  earthworms,  of  which  it  swal- 
lows as  many  in  a  day  as  would  equal  its  own  weight ; 
and  hence  its  favorite  resorts  are  where  it  can  obtain 
these  worms  in  abundance.  The  moist  grounds  which 
these  birds  frequent  are  perfectly  filled  with  bill-holes 
which  they  have  made  in  probing  for  worms  ;  and  these 
holes  become  a  guide  to  the  hunter,  who  looks  at  their 
frequency  and  freshness  when  he  would  find  good  shoot- 
ing. When  flushed  by  the  hunter  or  the  dog,  the  WTood- 
cock  ordinarily  flies  but  a  short  distance,  plunging  into 
a  clump  of  bushes  or  thicket  near  by,  or  a  thicker  part 
of  the  swamp.  It  spends  the  winter  in  warm  climates, 
but  breeds  from  the  Carolinas  to  Nova  Scotia.  The  nest, 
made  of  dead  leaves  and  grass,  is  placed  under  a  bush, 
or  beside  a  fallen  trunk.  The  eggs,  which  are  laid  from 
February  to  June,  according  to  locality,  are  usually  four, 
dull  yellowish  clay-color,  irregularly  and  thickly  marked 
with  dark  brown.  In  three  or  four  weeks  from  the  time 
the  young  are  hatched,  they  are  able  to  fly ;  and  when 
six  weeks  old,  they  fly  almost  as  well  as  the  old  ones. 

The  Genus  Gallinago  has  a  more  slender  body,  and 
longer  legs,  than  Philohela.- 

Wilson's  or  the  English  Snipe,  G.  Wilsonii,  Bonap.,  of 
the  temperate  regions  of  North  America,  is  ten  and  a 
half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  inches  ;  upper  parts 
brownish  black,  marked  with  light  rufous,  yellowish 

Q 


258 


VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 


Wilson's  Snipe,  G.  Wilsonti,  Bonap. 


-  J36-  brown,  or  ashy  white  ;  under 

parts  white,  reddish  ashy  on  the 
throat.  Flushed  by  the  hunt- 
er or  other  enemy,  it  dashes 
through  the  air,  in  a  zigzag 
course,  and  when  about  twen- 
ty yards  off  utters  its  pecu^ 
liar  wau-aik,  which  Audubon 
says  indicates  the  best  time 
to  fire. 

The  Genus  Macrorhamphm 
has  the  tarsus  longer  than  the 
middle  toe,  and  the  base  of 
the  outer  and  middle  toe  connected  by  a  short  web. 

The  Gray  Snipe  or  Red-breasted  Snipe,  M.  griseus, 
Leach,  of  the  temperate  regions  of  North  America,  is 
about  ten  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  and  three  quar- 
ters inches,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  by 
the  white  shaft  of  the  first  quill. 

The  Greater  Longbeak,  M.  scolopaceus,  Lawr.,  of  all 
temperate  North  America,  is  eleven  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  five  and  three  quarters  inches. 

The  Genus  Tringa  comprises  a  large  number  of  small 
birds  which  live  on  the  shores  of  both  salt  and  fresh 
water  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  They  are  found  more 
or  less  in  flocks,  and  feed  upon  small  or  minute  shell- 
fish and  other  small  aquatic  animals.  Their  wings  are 
long  and  pointed,  tail  short,  lower  portion  of  tibiae  naked, 
hind  toe  very  small,  and  the  fore  toes  with  a  membra- 
nous margin.  They  are  known  as  Sandpipers. 

The  Gray-back  or  Robin  Snipe,  T.  canutus,  Linn.,  of 
Eastern  North  America  and  Europe,  is  ten  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  six  and  a  half  inches. 

Cooper's  Sandpiper,  T.  Cooperi,  Baird,  of  Long  Island, 
is  rather  smaller  than  the  preceding. 


GRALLATORES:    SCOLOPACID.E.  259 

The  Purple  Sandpiper,  T.  maritima,  Brtinnich,  of  East- 
ern North  America  and  Europe,  is  eight  to  nine  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  five  inches. 

The  Curlew  Sandpiper,  T.  subarquata,  Temm.,  of  the 
Eastern  hemisphere,  and  rare  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
North  America,  is  about  nine  inches  long,  the  wing  five 
inches  ; .  bill  slightly  curved  towards  the  tip. 

The  Red-backed  Sandpiper,  T.  alpina,  var.  americana, 
Cass.,  of  temperate  North  America,  is  eight  and  a  half 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  inches. 

The  Jack  Snipe,  T.  maculata,  Vieill.,  of  all  North  Amer- 
ica, South  America,  and  Europe,  is  nine  inches  long,-  and 
the  wing  five  and  a  quarter  inches ;  upper  parts  brownish 
black  ;  under  parts  white  and  ashy  white  ;  breast  spotted 

The  Least  Sandpiper,  T.  Wilsonii,  Nutt,  of  all  temper-  ; 
ate  North  America,  is  five  and  a  half  to  six  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  three  and  a  half  inches  or  more. 

Bonaparte's  Sandpiper,  T.  Bonapartii,  Schlegel,  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  seven  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  four  and  three  quarters  inches. 

The  Genus  Calidris  has  the  general  characters  of  Trin- 
ga,  but  is  destitute  of  a  hind  toe. 

The  Sanderling,  C.  arenaria,  Illig.,  of  North  America, 
South  America,  and  Europe,  is  about  eight  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  five  inches. 

The  Genus  Ereunetes  has  the  feet  semi-palmated.  It 
is  represented  by  the  Semi-palmated  Sandpiper,  E.  petri- 
ficatus,  Illig.,  of  the  temperate  regions  of  North  and  South 
America,  which  is  six  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  three  and  three  quarters  inches. 

The  Genus  Micropalama  has  the  basal  membrane  of 
the  toes  more  deeply  emarginate  than  in  the  preceding 
genus.  It  is  represented  by  the  Stilt  Sandpiper,  M. 
himantopus,  Baird,  of  Eastern'  North  America,  which  is 
eight  and  a  half  to  nine  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five 
and  a  quarter  inches  ;  legs  long  and  slender. 


26O  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Symphemia  has  the  bill  very  thick  and 
recurved. 

The  Willet,  S.  semipalmata,  Hartl.,  of  temperate  North 
and  South  America,  is  fifteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
eight  and  a  quarter  inches ;  upper  parts  dark  ashy ;  rump, 
upper  tail-coverts,  and  under  parts,  white. 

The  Genus  Glottis  is  represented  by  the  Florida  Green- 
shank,  G.floridanus,  Bonap.,  which  is  eleven  inches  long. 
The  Genus  Gambetta  has  the  bill  much  attenuated  to- 
wards the  tip,  the  outer  toe  webbed  to  the  first  joint,  and 
the  inner  web  very  short. 

The  Tell-tale,  or  Stone  Snipe,  G.  melanoleuca,  Bonap., 
of  North  America,  is  fourteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
about  eight  inches ;  upper  parts  cinereous ;  under  parts 
white,  with  longitudinal  stripes  on  the  neck,  and  trans- 
verse spots  and  stripes  of  dark  on  the  breast  and  sides. 

Fig- 137-  The  Yellow-Legs,  G.fla- 

vipes,  Bonap.,  of  Eastern 
North  America,  is  similar 
to  the  preceding,  but  small- 
er, being  ten  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  six  inches. 
The  Genus  Rhyacophilus 
has  the  bill  curved  upward 

Yellow-Legs,  G.ftavipes,  Bonap.  slightly    from     the     middle. 

It  is  represented  by  the  Solitary  Sandpiper,  R.  solitarius, 
Bonap.,  of  North  America,  which  is  eight  and  a  half 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  five  inches. 

The  Genus  Heteroscelus  has  the  bill  stout  and  com- 
pressed. It  is  represented  by  the  Wandering  Tatler,  H. 
brevipes,  Baird,  of  Washington  Territory,  which  is  about 
ten  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  six  and  a  half 
inches. 

The  Genus  Tringoides  has  the  bill  straight,  shorter 
than  the  head,  and  the  tail  much  rounded.  It  is  repre- 


GRALLATORES :    SCOLOPACIDjE. 


26l 


sented  by  the  Spotted  Sandpiper,  T.  macularius,  Gray,  of 
temperate  North  America,  which  is  seven  and  a  half  to 
eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  four  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Actiturus  is  represented  by  Bartram's  Sand- 
piper or  Field  Plover,  A.  Bartramius,  Bonap.,  of  temper- 
ate North. America,  South  America,  and  Europe,  which 
is  about  twelve  inches  long,  and  the  wing  six  and  a  half 
inches  ;  general  color  above  brownish  black  ;  under  parts 
yellowish  white.  It  prefers  plains  and  cultivated  fields. 

The  Genus  Philomachus  is  represented  by  the  Ruff, 
P.  pugnax,  Gray,  of  Northern  Europe,  and  accidental  on 
Long  Island,  which  closely  resembles  the  preceding  one. 

The  Genus  Tryngites  has  the  wings  very  long.  It  is 
represented  by  the  Buff-breasted  Sandpiper,  T.  rufescens> 
Cab.,  of  North  and  South  America  and  Europe,  which  is 
seven  and  a  half  to  eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  five 
and  a  half  inches.  It  prefers  plains  and  fields. 

The  Genus  Limosa 
—  God  wits  —  has  the 
bill  lengthened,  slen- 
der, and  curving  gen- 
tly upwards.  It  is 
represented  by  the 
Marbled  Godwit,  L. 
fedoa,  Ord,  of  North 
and  South  America, 
which  is  eighteen 
inches  long,  and  the 
wing  nine  inches ;  and 

the    Hudsonian    God-  Marbled  Godwit,  L.  fedoa,  Ord. 

wit,  L.  hudsonicus,  Sw.,  of  Northern  North  America,  which 
is  fifteen  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Numenizis  —  Curlews  —  has  the  bill  very 
long,  and  curved  downwards. 

The  Long-billed  Curlew,  N.  longirostris,  Wils.,  of  all 


262  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

temperate  North  America,  is  about  twenty-five  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  ten  to  eleven  inches ;  the  curved  bill 

Fig.  139. 


Long-billed  Curlew,  ff.  longirostris,  Wils. 

from  five  to  eight  inches  long.  The  upper  parts  are  pale 
rufous  tinged  with  ashy,  every  feather  marked  with  brown- 
ish black  ;  the  under  parts  pale  rufous,  with  longitudinal 
lines  of  black  on  the  neck  and  sides. 

The  Short-billed  Curlew,  N.  hudsonicus.  Lath.,  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  North  America,  is  eigh- 
teen inches  long,  the  wing  nine  inches ;  and  the  bill  three 
to  four  inches  long. 

The  Esquimaux  Curlew,  N.  borealis,  Lath.,  of  North 
America,  is  thirteen  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  eight 
and  a  quarter  inches  ;  the  bill  two  and  a  quarter  to  two 
and  a  half  inches  long. 

RALLID.E,  OR  RAIL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
waders,  with  a  strong,  compressed  bill,  compressed  body, 
rather  short  wings,  and  long  toes.  They  live  in  marshes, 
and  are  but  little  seen  except  by  hunters  and  naturalists. 

The  Genus  Rallus  —  Rails  —  has  the  bill  rather  longer 
than  the  head,  wings  and  tail  very  short.  It  includes 
about  twenty  species,  inhabiting  all  countries. 

The  King  Rail,  or  Marsh  Hen,  R.  elegans,  Aud.,  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  North  America,  in  the 


GRALLATORES:    RALLID^.  263 

warmer  parts,  is  seventeen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  six 
and  a  half  inches  ;  upper  parts  olive  brown  ;  under  parts 
rufous  chestnut. 

The  Clapper  Rail,  or  Mud  Hen,  R.  crepitans,  Gm.,  of 
the  Atlantic  coast,  is  about  fourteen  inches  long,  the  wing 
five  and  a  half  inches,  and  resembles  the  preceding. 

The  Virginia  Rail,  R.  virginianus,  Linn.,  of  temperate 
North  America,  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  four  inches ;  upper  parts  olive  brown,  with  longitudi- 
nal stripes  of  brownish  black ;  throat  white ;  neck  be- 
fore, and  breast,  bright  rufous ;  abdomen  and  under  tail- 
coverts  with  transverse  bands  of  black  and  white. 

The  Genus  Porzana  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head, 
and  straight.  It  contains  about  twenty  species. 

The  Sora,  or  Common  Rail,  Fig.  i4o. 

P.  Carolina,  Vieill.,  of  temper- 
ate North  America,  is  eight 
and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  four  and  a  quarter 
inches ;  the  upper  parts  green- 
ish brown,  with  longitudinal 
bands  of  black,  and  many 
feathers  with  narrow  white 

stripes  at  their  edges  ;  the  sides  of  the  neck  and  breast 
bluish  ashy,  with  circular  spots  and  transverse  bands  of 
white  upon  the  breast ;  the  bill  greenish  yellow ;  legs 
dark  green.  The  female  is  similar,  but  duller. 

The  Little  Black  Rail,  P.  jamaicensis,  Cass.,  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  and  the  West  Indies, 
five  inches  long,  and  the  Yellow  Rail,  P.  noveboracensis, 
Baird,  of  Eastern  North  America,  about  six  inches  long, 
are  additional  species. 

The  Genus  Crex  is  represented  by  the  Corn-Crake,  C. 
pratensis,  Bechst,  of  Europe,  Greenland,  and  accidental 
in  the  United  States,  which  is  ten  inches  long ;  color  dark 


264  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Fulica  —  Coots  —  has  the  bill  straight,  com- 
pressed, and  extending  into  the  feathers  of  the  forehead, 
forming  a  wide  and  projecting  frontal  plate;  and  the  toes 
margined  with  semicircular  lobes. 

.  The  Coot,  F.  amcricana,  Gm.,  of  temperate  North  Amer- 
ica, is  fourteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  seven  inches. 

The  Genus  Gallinula  —  Gallinules  —  is  distinguished 
from  Fulica  by  the  absence  of  lobes  on  the  toes. 

The  Florida  Gallinule,  G.  galeata,  Bonap.,  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  America,  is  twelve  and  a  half  inches  long ;  the 
frontal  plate  large,  terminating  square  on  the  top  of  the 
head ;  the  head,  neck,  and  under  parts  dark  bluish-cine- 
reous ;  upper  parts  brownish  olive.  The  frontal  plate  and 
bill  are  bright  red  tipped  with  yellow. 

Fig  I41  The  Purple  Gallinule, 

G.  martinica,  Lath.,  of 
the  Southern  States  and 
northward,  is  twelve  and 
a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  seven  inches ; 
head  and  under  parts 
bluish  purple ;  lower 
tail-coverts  white  ;  up- 
per parts  dark  olive  green  ;  bill  bright  red  tipped  with 
yellow  ;  frontal  plate  blue,  and  legs  yellow. 

SUB-SECTION    VII. 

THE  ORDER  OF  NATATORES,  OR  SWIMMERS. 

THE  Order  of  Natatores  comprises  birds  which  are 
especially  fitted  for  aquatic  life.  Their  plumage  is  thick 
and  firm,  toes  webbed  to  the  claws,  tibiae  feathered  to  near 
the  tarsal  joint,  the  hind  toe  usually  elevated,  and  rather 
small.  They  all  swim  well,  and  most  of  them  dive  freely. 
This  group  may  be  divided  into  two  Sub-Orders,  —  An- 


NATATORES:   ANATID^.  265 

seres,  which  have  the  bill  with  transverse  lamellae  along 
the  edges ;  and  Gaviae,  which  have  the  bill  without  lamellae. 
The  first  of  these  is  represented  by  the  great  group  of 
Anatidae. 

ANATID^E,  OR  DUCK  FAMILY.  —  This  family  comprises 
swimming  birds  whose  jaws  have  transverse  lamellae,  the 
upper  mandible  ending  in  an  obtuse  rounded  nail,  and  a 
groove  running  along  both  jaws  to  the  nail.  They  are 
numerous,  and  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Genus  Cygnus  —  Swans  —  has  the  neck  very  long. 

The  American  Swan,  C.  americanus,  Sharp.,  of  North 
America,  is  fifty-five  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty- 
two  inches ;  the  adult  pure  white,  the  bill  and  legs  black ; 
the  tail  has  twenty  feathers.  The  young  are  brown. 

The  Trumpeter  Swan,  C.  buccinator,  Rich.,  of  Western 
North  America,  is  sixty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty- 
four  inches ;  the  adult  pure  white,  the  bill  and  legs  black ; 
the  tail  has  twenty-four  feathers.  Its  notes  are  more 
sonorous  than  those  of  the  preceding. 

The  Red-billed  Swan,  Anas  olor,  Gm.,  and  the  Black- 
billed  Swan,  A.  cygnus,  Gm.,  belong  to  Europe.  The 
former  is  the  original  of  the  domestic  Swan. 

The  notion  that  the  Swan  sings  on  the  approach  of 
death  is  erroneous. 

The  Genus  Anser  has  the  lamellae  of  the  upper  man- 
dible projecting  below  the  edge  as  points. 

The  Snow  Goose,  A.  kyperboreus,  Pallas,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  thirty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  about  sixteen  and 
a  half  inches  ;  color  pure  white  ;  bill  and  legs  red. 

The  White-fronted  Goose,  A.  Gambelli,  Haiti.,  of  North 
America,  is  twenty-eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  about 
sixteen  and  one  third  inches ;  color  grayish ;  forehead 
white,  bill  and  legs  red  ;  the  tail  has  sixteen  feathers. 

The  Brown-fronted  Goose,  A.frontalis,  Baird,  of  the  in- 
terior of  North  America,  closely  resembles  the  preceding. 


266  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Bernicla  has  the  teeth  of  the  upper  man- 
dible mainly  concealed  ;  bill  and  legs  black. 

The  Canada  or  Wild  Goose,  B.  canadensis,  Boie,  of 
North  America,  is  thirty-five  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
eighteen  inches ;  the  upper  parts  brownish,  the  lower 
parts  lighter ;  the  head,  neck,  bill,  and  feet  black.  It 
spends  the  winter  in  the  warmer  regions,  but  in  spring 
moves  northward  in  large  flocks.  Their  spring  migra- 
tions usually  take  place  from  the  2Oth  of  March  to  the 
last  of  April,  but  are  wholly  dependent  upon  the  state 
of  the  season.  They  breed  at  the  North,  and  linger  there 
till  the  hard  frosts  warn  them  that  the  lakes  and  streams 
will  soon  be  frozen  over. 

The  White-cheeked  Goose,  B.  leucopareia,  Cass.,  of  the 
western  coast  of  America,  has  the  general  appearance  of 
the  preceding,  but  is  darker  and  somewhat  smaller. 

Hutchins's  Goose,  B.  Hutchinsii,  Bonap.,  of  the  north- 
ern and  western  portions  of  North  America,  closely  re- 
sembles B.  canadensis,  but  is  only  thirty  inches  long. 

The  Brant,  B.  brenta,  Steph.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
North  America  and  Europe,  is  twenty-three  and  a  half 
inches  long,  the  wing  twelve  and  three  quarters  inches ; 
bill,  feet,  head,  neck,  and  fore  part  of  the  body,  primary 
quills  and  tail,  black.  On  each  side  of  the  neck  there 
is  a  small  white  crescent  'streaked  with  black. 

The  Black  Brant,  B.  nigricans,  Cass.,  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  North  America,  is  twenty-nine  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  nearly  fourteen  inches. 

The  Barnacle  Goose,  B.  Icucopsis,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  is 
twenty-eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  seventeen  inches. 

The  Genus  Chloephaga  is  represented  by  the  Painted 
Goose,  C.  canagica,  Bonap.,  of  the  Aleutian  Islands. 

The  Genus  Deudrocygna  has  the  bill  much  longer  than 
the  head,  neck  and  legs  very  long,  and  feet  very  large. 

Long-legged  Duck,  D.  autumnalis,  Eyton,  of  the 


NATATORES:  ANATID.E.  26/ 

Rio  Grande,  is  twenty-four  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
ten  inches. 

The  Brown  Tree-duck,  D.  fulva,  Burm.,  of  California 
and  southward,  is  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  over 
nine  inches. 

Anatinae,  or  River  Ducks,  have  the  legs  shorter  than 
geese,  the  lobe  of  the  hind  toe  narrow,  and  much  re- 
stricted. Eight  genera  are  found  in  North  America. 

The  Genus  Anas  has  the  bill  broad,  depressed,  longer 
than  the  head,  and  the  tail  pointed. 

The  Mallard,  or  Green-Head,  A.  boscltas,  Linn.,  of  North 
America  and  most  of  the  Old  World,  is  twenty-three  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  eleven  inches ;  the  head  and  neck 
bright  grass-green,  with  a  violet  gloss ;  a  white  ring, 
around  the  middle  of  the  neck,  below  which  and  on  the 
fore  part  and  sides  of  the  breast  the  color  is  dark  brown- 
ish-chestnut ;  speculum  purplish  violet,  terminated  with 
black.  This  is  the  original  of  the  common  domestic  duck. 

The  Black  Duck,  A.  obscura,  Gm.,  of  the  Atlantic  region 
of  North  America,  is  twenty-two  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  twelve  inches ;  general  color  bluish  brown. 

The  Genus  Dafila  has  the  bill  long  and  narrow,  tail 
pointed.  It  is  represented  by  the  Pintail,  or  Sprigtail, 
D.  acuta,  Jenyns,  of  North  America  and  Europe,  which 
is  thirty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  eleven  inches. 

The  Genus  Nettion  has  the  bill  unusually  narrow. 

The  Green-winged  Teal,  N.  carolinmsis,  Baird,  of  North 
America,  accidental  in  Europe,  is  fourteen  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  seven  and  two  fifths  inches ;  and  distin- 
guished by  the  broad  rich  green  speculum. 

The  English  Teal,  N.  crecca,  Kaup.,  of  Europe,  acci- 
dental in  North  America,  is  similar  to  the  preceding. 

The  Genus  Querquedula  has  the  bill  narrow,  and  a 
little  longer  than  the  foot. 

The  Blue-winged  Teal,  Q.  discors,  Steph.,  of  North 


268  VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 

America  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  sixteen  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  over  seven  inches. 

The  Red-breasted  Teal,  Q.  cyanoptera,  Cass.,  of  West- 
ern North  America,  is  nearly  eighteen  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  seven  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Spatula  has  the  bill  much  longer  than  the 
head,  and  spatulate,  widening  to  the  end. 

The  Shoveller,  or  Spoonbill,  S.  clypeata,  Boie,  of  North 
America  and  Europe,  is  twenty  inches  long,  the  wing  nine 
and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Chaulelasmus  has  the  bill  as  long  as  the 
head,  and  the  lamellae  distinctly  visible  below  the  edges. 
It  is  represented  by  the  Gadwall,  or  Gray  Duck,  C.  strepe- 
,ms,  Gray,  of  North  America  and  Europe,  which  is  twenty- 
two  inches  long,  the  wing  ten  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Mareca  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head  ; 
tail  pointed  ;  upper  parts  finely  waved  with  black  and 
gray  or  reddish  brown ;  under  parts  white. 

The  Baldpate,  or  American  Widgeon,  M.  americana, 
Steph.,  of  North  America,  is  nearly  twenty-two  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  eleven  inches ;  head  and  neck  gray- 
ish, spotted  and  banded  with  black,  a  broad  green  patch 
around  and  behind  the  eye,  and  top  of  the  head  nearly 
white. 

The  English  Widgeon,  M.  penelope,  Bonap.,  of  the  Old 
World,  and  accidental  in  North  America,  is  twenty  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  over  ten  and  a  half  inches  ;  head  and 
neck  reddish  brown,  and  top  of  the  head  cream-color. 

The  Genus  ^tohas  the  bill  high  at  the  base,  the  head 
crested,  claws  short,  curved,  and  very  sharp.  It  com- 
prises the  most  beautiful  ducks. 

The  Summer  or  Wood  Duck,  A.  sponsa,  Boie,  of  North 
America,  is  nineteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  nine  and 
a  half  inches.  Its  exquisitely  beautiful  plumage  surpasses 
description.  It  builds  its  nest  in  a  hollow  tree  or  limb. 


NATATORES:   ANATID^. 


269 


If  the  nest  is 
over  water,  the 
young,  the  mo- 
ment they  are 
hatched,  drop 
into  the  wa- 
ter;  but  if  at 
a  distance  from 
it,  they  are  al- 
lowed to  fall  on 
the  ground,  and 
are  then  led,  or 
carried,  to  the 
water  by  the 

parent  Summer  or  Wood  Duck,  A .  sponsa,  Boie. 

Fuligulinae,  or  Sea  Ducks,  differ  from  the  Anatinae  in 
having  a  large  lobe  or  membranous  flap  attached  to  the 
under  surface  of  the  hind  toe.  They  are  found  inland 
as  well  as  on  the  sea-coast. 

The  Genus  Fulix  has  the  bill  as  long  as  the  feet ;  head, 
neck,  body  anterior  to  the  shoulders,  tail  and  tail-coverts, 
rump,  and  lower  back,  black ;  tail  rounded,  of  fourteen 
feathers  ;  under  parts  white,  finely  waved  with  black  be- 
hind and  on  the  sides. 

The  Big  Black-Head,  or  Scaup  Duck,  F.  marila,  Baird, 
of  North  America  and  Europe>  is  twenty  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  nine  inches  ;  speculum  white.  The  female  has 
the  head  brown. 

The  Little  Black-Head,  or  Blue-Bill,  F.  affinis,  Baird,  of 
North  America  and  Europe,  is  sixteen  and  a  half  inches 
long,  the  wing  eight  inches  ;  similar  to  the  preceding. 

The  Ring-necked  Duck,  F.  collaris,  Baird,  of  North 
America  and  accidental  in  Europe,  is  eighteen  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  eight  inches,  and  is  distinguished  by 
a  chestnut  collar  around  the  middle  of  the  neck. 


270  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

The  Genus  Aythya  comprises  two  American  species. 

The  Red-Head,  A.  americana,  Bonap.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  twenty  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  nine 
and  a  half  inches  ;  the  head  and  neck  for  more  than  half 
its  length  brownish  red. 

The  Canvas-Back,  A.  vallisneria,  Bonap.,  of  all  North 
America,  is  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  about  nine 
and  one  third  inches  ;  head  and  neck  chestnut ;  body 


Fig.  143. 


Canvas-Back,  A.  vallisneria,  Bonaf). 

anterior  to  the  shoulders,  the  lower  back,  rump,  and  tail- 
coverts,  black ;  under  parts  white ;  scapulars  and  inter- 
scapulars  white,  finely  dotted  with  black  in  transverse  lines. 

The  Genus  Bucephala  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head, 
and  the  tail  with  sixteen  feathers. 

The  Golden-Eye,  or  Whistle- Wing,  B.  americana,  Baird, 
of  North  America,  is  eighteen  and  three  quarters  inches" 
long,  and  the  wing  eight  and  a  half  inches  ;  the  head  and 
upper  neck  glossy  green  ;  a  white  patch  before  the  eye. 

Barrow's  Golden-Eye,  B.  islandica,  Baird,  of  Northern 
North  America,  is  twenty-two  and  a  half  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  nine  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Butter-Ball,  or  Dipper,  B.  albeola,  Baird,  of  North 
America,  is  fifteen  inches  long,  the  wing  over  six  and  a 


NATATORES  I   ANATID^E.  2/1 

half  inches ;  a  broad  patch  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
lower  neck,  and  under  parts,  white. 

The  Genus  Histrionictts  has  the  bill  very  small,  and  a 
membranous  lobe  at  -its  base  ;  the  tail  pointed,  and  with 
fourteen  feathers. 

The  Harlequin  Duck,  H.  torquatusy  Bonap.,  of  Northern 
North  America,  is  seventeen  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  nearly  seven  and  three  quarters  inches ;  general 
color  bluish,  under  parts  dull  brownish.  There  are  two 
white  spots  on  the  side  of  the  neck,  two  on  the  wings, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  tail,  and  the  scapulars 
and  tertials  are  marked  with  white,  and  the  secondaries 
have  a  violet-blue  speculum. 

The  Genus  Harelda  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head, 
and  the  tail  pointed,  with  fourteen  feathers. 

The  Long-Tail,  or  Old- Wife,  H.  glacialis,  Leach,  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts  of  North  America,  and  of  Eu- 
rope, is  about  twenty-one  inches  long,  the  wing  nearly 
nine  inches ;  general  color  blackish ;  under  parts  whitish ; 
tail  eight  inches  in  length. 

The  Genus  Camptolczmus  has  the  bill  broad,  feathers 
of  the  cheek  stiffened,  and  tail  rather  pointed.  It  is  rep- 
resented by  the  Labrador  Duck,  C.  labradorius,  Gray,  of 
the  northeastern  coast  of  North  America,  which  is  about 
twenty-four. inches  long,  and  the  wing  nearly  nine  inches. 

The  Genus  Melanetta  is  represented  by  the  White- 
winged  Coot,  or  Velvet  Duck,  M.  velvetina,  Baird,  which 
is  twenty-one  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  about 
eleven  and  one  third  inches ;  color  black,  with  a  small 
white  patch  round  the  eye,  and  a  large  white  speculum 
upon  the  wing.  The  female  is  brown. 

The  Genus  Pelionetta  contains  two  American  species. 

The  Sea  Coot,  or  Surf  Duck,  P.  .perspicillata,  Kaup,  is 
nineteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  nearly  nine  and  a 
half  inches  ;  color  black,  a  triangular  white  patch  on  the 


272  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

top  of  the  head,  and  one  on  the  nape ;  bill  red.  The 
female  is  brown,  sides  and  under  parts  whitish. 

The  Long-billed  Scoter,  P.  Trowbridgii,  Baird,  of 
Southern  California,  is  much  like  the  preceding. 

The  Genus  Oidemia  has  the  bill  much  swollen  at  the 
base,  and  the  terminal  portion  much  depressed,  and  very 
broad.  The  Scoter,  O.  americana,  Sw.,  of  the  coast  of 
North  America,  is  nearly  twenty-four  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  over  nine  inches ;  color  black.  The  Huron 
Scoter,  O.  bimaculata,  Baird,  of  Lake  Huron,  is  eighteen 
and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  ten  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Somateria  has  the  bill  much  compressed, 
tapering,  and  terminated  by  an  enormous  nail. 

The  Eider  Duck,  6\  mollissima.  Leach,  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Arctic  coasts,  is  twenty-six  inches  long,  the  wing 
about  eleven  and  a  quarter  inches ;  prevailing  color  white  ; 
under  parts,  rump,  tail,  quills,  and  stripe  above  the  eye, 
black.  It  is  an  expert  diver,  often  going  down  in  search 
of  food  eight  or  ten  fathoms.  The  celebrated  eider-down 
is  obtained  from  the  nest  of  this  species,  the  birds  having 
plucked  it  from  their  breasts  to  place  around  their  eggs. 

The  King  Eider,  S.  spectabilis,  Leach,  of  the  Arctic 
regions,  is  twenty-one  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  nearly  ten  and  three  quarters  inches  ;  colors  black 
and  white.  The  females  of  both  these  species  are  mainly 
brown. 

The  Pacific  Eider,  S.  V-nigra,  Gray,  has  a  V-shaped 
mark  on  the  chin. 

The  Genus  Erismatura  has  the  bill  much  depressed 
and  bent  upwards  ;  tail  of  eighteen  very  stiff  feathers. 

The  Ruddy  Duck,  E.  rubida,  Bonap.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  sixteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  about  six  inches ; 
chestnut-red  above,  grayish  white  below. 

The  Black  Masked  Duck,  E.  dominica,  Eyton,  of  Lake 
Champlain,  is  an  additional  species. 


NATATORES  :   ANATID,E.  2/3 

The  Genus  Mergus  has  the  bill  very  narrow,  slender, 
longer  than  the  head,  and  conspicuously  serrated. 

The  Sheldrake,  Goosander,  or  Fish  Duck,  M.  ameri- 
camis,  Cass.,  of  North  America,  is  twenty-six  and  a  half 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  eleven  inches ;  the  male  is 
without  a  conspicuous  crest,  the  head  and  neck  green, 
fore  part  of  the  back  black ;  lower  parts  salmon-color. 
The  female  has  a  depressed  occipital  crest ;  head  and 
neck  chestnut,  upper  parts  ashy,  lower  like  the  male. 

The  Red-breasted  Merganser,  M.  serrator,  Linn.,  of 
North  America  and  Europe,  is  twenty-three  and  a  quarter 
inches  long,  the  wing  eight  and  three  fifths  inches  ;  head 
and  upper  part  of  neck  all  round,  dark  green ;  under 
parts  reddish  white ;  head  with  a  conspicuous,  pointed 
occipital  crest.  The  female  has  the  head  chestnut-brown, 
body  ashy  above,  and  reddish  white  beneath. 

The  Genus  Lophodytes  has  the  bill  shorter  than  the 
head,  the  serrations  short,  and  the  head  with  a  very  con- 
spicuous, compressed,  circular,  erect  crest. 

The  Hooded  Merganser,  L.  cuctdlatus,  Reich.,  of  all 
North  America,  is  seventeen  and  a  half  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  nearly  eight  inches ;  the  head,  neck,  and  back, 
black;  the  under  parts,  and  centre  of  the  crest,  white. 
The  female  has  the  crest  shorter  and  more  pointed,  the 
head  and  neck  reddish  brown. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Gaviae  includes  three  great  tribes ; — 
Totipalmi,  comprising  Pelicanidae  or  Pelican  Family,  Su- 
lidae  or  Gannet  Family,  Tachypetidae,  Phalacrocoracidae 
or  Cormorant  Family,  Plotidae,  and  Phaetonidae; —  Longi- 
pennes,  comprising  Procellaridae  or  Petrel  Family,  and 
Laridae  or  Gull  Family  ;  —  and  Brachypteri,  comprising 
Colymbidae  or  Diver  Family,  and  Alcidae  or  Auk  Family. 

PELICANID^E,  OR  PELICAN  FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises swimming  birds  which  have  the  bill  long,  hooked  at 
the  end,  nostrils  hardly  perceptible,  wings  long,  pointed, 

12*  R 


2/4  VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 

and  tail  rather  short.  They  have  a  pouch  under  the 
lower  mandible  and  opening  into  the  throat,  which  is 
capable  of  great  distention.  Their  flight  is  heavy. 

The  Genus  Pelicanus  is  the  only  one  found  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  represented  by  two  species. 

The  Rough-billed  Pelican,  P.  erythrorliynchus,  Gm.,  is 
seventy  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty-four  and  a  half 
inches  ;  the  prevailing  color  white. 

The  Brown  Pelican,  P.  fuscus,  Linn.,  of  California  and 
Texas,  is  fifty-six  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty-two 
inches ;  bill  thirteen  and  a  half  inches  ;  color  dark. 

SULID.E  OR  GANNET  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
swimming  birds  which  have  the  bill  rather  long,  straight, 
strong,  compressed,  and  tapering  to  the  point,  which  is  a 
little  decurved,  and  the  nostrils  hardly  perceptible.  The 
wings  are  very  long,  tail  long  and  cuneate. 

The  Genus  Sula  is  the  only  one  in  North  America. 

The  Common  Gannet,  vS.  bassana,  Briss.,  of  Labrador 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  thirty-eight  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  nineteen  and  a  half  inches;  general  color  white. 
It  feeds  upon  fish,  and  obtains  them  by  plunging  from 
a  height,  often  remaining  under  water  for  a  minute  or 
more.  This  species  breeds  in  immense  numbers  on  the 
rocky  islands  near  the  coast  of  Labrador. 

The  Booby  Gannet,  5.  fiber,  Linn.,  of  the  Southern 
coast  of  the  United  States,  is  thirty-one  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  sixteen  and  a  half  inches  ;  brown  above  ;  white 
below ;  throat  yellow. 

TACHYPETID/E,  OR  MAN-OF-WAR  BIRD  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  is  characterized  by  a  very  long,  strong,  acute, 
hooked  bill,  and  hardly  perceptible  nostrils.  The  wings 
are  exceedingly  long,  and  the  tail  long  and  much  forked. 

The  Genus  Tachypetes  is  represented  by  the  Man-of- 
War  Bird,  or  Frigate  Pelican,  T.  aquila,  Vieill.,  of  Florida 
to  California,  which  is  forty-one  inches  in  total  length, 


NATATORES  :  PHALACROCORACID^  AND  PLOTID^.  2?5 

the  wing  twenty-five,  and  the  tail  eighteen  inches  long  ; 
the  prevailing  color  brownish  black.  In  swiftness  and 
power  of  flight  this  bird  is  not  surpassed  by  any  other. 

PHALACROCORACIM:,  OR  CORMORANT  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  swimming  birds  which  have  the  tip  of 
the  bill  much  hooked,  acute,  and  the  nostrils  not  per- 
ceptible. They  are  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  all  coun- 
tries, and  b'reed  on  rugged  cliffs  and  on  trees,  and  feed 
upon  fish,  which  they  obtain  with  great  expertness. 

The  Genus  Graculus  comprises  eight  species. 

The  Common  Cormorant,  G.  carbo,  Gray,  of  Labrador, 
is  thirty-seven  inches  long,  and  the  wing  fourteen  inches ; 
the  color  bluish  black,  gular  sac  yellow,  with  a  broad 
white  band  at  the  base. 

The  Double-crested  Cormorant,  G.  dilophus,  Gray,  of 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts ;  the  Florida  Cormorant, 
G.  floridanus,  Bonap.,  of  the  Southern  States  and  of 
the  Mississippi ;  the  Mexican  Cormorant,  G.  mexicanus, 
Bonap. ;  Brandt's  Cormorant,  G.  penicillatus,  Bonap. ; 
and  the  Violet-Green  Cormorant,  G.  violaceus.  Gray,  of 
the  Pacific  coast,  are  additional  species. 

PLOTID.E,  OR  DARTER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  is  char- 
acterized by  a  long,  straight  bill,  long  wings  and  tail,  and 
short  tarsi. 

The  Genus  Plotus  comprises  four  species,  one  in  Amer- 
ica and  three  in  the  Old  World.  They  inhabit  the  warm 
regions,  and  are  found  in  flocks. 

The  Snake  Bird,  Darter,  or  Water  Turkey,  P.  anhinga, 
Linn.,  of  the  Southern  coast  of  the  United  States,  is 
thirty-five  inches  long,  and  the  wing  fourteen  inches ;  the 
general  color  greenish  black. 

PILETONID,E,  OR  TROPIC-BIRD  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
is  characterized  by  a  long  bill,  long  wings,  tail  with  cen- 
tral feathers  extremely  elongated,  tarsi  short. 

The  Genus  Phceton  is  represented  by  the  Yellow-billed 


2/6 


VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 


Tropic-Bird,  P.  flavirostris,  Brandt,  of  Florida,  which  is 
thirty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  eleven  inches ;  the  gen- 
eral color  white,  the  wings  banded  with  black. 

PROCELLARID^E,  OR  PETREL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  swimming  birds  which  have  the  bill  more  or 
less  lengthened,  compressed,  deeply  grooved,  and  appear- 
ing as  if  formed  of  several  distinct  parts  ;  ^and  nostrils 
opening  from  distinct  tubes.  They  are  all  oceanic. 

The  Genus  Diomedia — Albatrosses — has  the  bill  pow- 
erful, much  curved,  acute,  and  the  upper  mandible  grooved 


Fig.  144. 


Sooty  Albatross,  D.fuliginosa,  Gm. 

its  whole  length,  and  great  extent  of  wing.  The  Wan- 
dering Albatross,  D.  exulans,  Linn.,  of  the  Pacific,  is 
forty-four  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty-four  inches  ; 
color  white,  with  narrow  transverse  lines  of  black  above. 
The  Short-tailed  Albatross,  D.  brachyura,  Temm.,  of  the 
North  Pacific,  is  about  thirty-six  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  twenty  inches  ;  general  color  white.  The  Yellow- 
nosed  Albatross,  D.  chlororhynchns,  Gm.,  of  the  Pacific, 
is  thirty-six  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty-two  inches. 


NATATORES:  PROCELLARID^E.          277 

The  Sooty  Albatross*,  D.  fidiginosa,  Gm.,  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  Oregon  and  California,  is  thirty-four  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  twenty-one  inches  ;  color  sooty  brown. 

The  Genus  Procellaria  —  Fulmar  Petrels  —  has  the  bill 
rather  stout,  and  the  lower  mandible  with  a  lateral  groove. 

The  Gigantic  Fulmar,  P.  gigantea,  Gm.,  of  the  Pacific, 
is  thirty-six  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twenty  inches. 

The  Fulmar  Petrel,  P.  glacialis,  Linn.,  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  is  twenty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  thirteen 
inches  ;  the  back  and  wings  bluish,  under  parts  white. 

The  Pacific  Fulmar,  P.  pacifica,  Aud.,  of  the  Pacific, 
closely  resembles  the  preceding  one. 

The  Slender-billed  Fulmar,  P.  tenuirostris,  Aud.,  of  the 
Pacific,  is  eighteen  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
thirteen  inches. 

The  Tropical  Fulmar,  P.  meridionalis,  Lawr.,  of  the  At- 
lantic, is  sixteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twelve  inches. 

The  Genus  Daption  is  represented  by  the  Cape  Pigeon, 
D.  capensis,  Steph.,  of  the  coast  of  California,  which  is 
fifteen  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Thalassidroma — Stormy  Petrels — has  the 
bill  short  and  slender.  It  comprises  the  smallest  of  web- 
footed  birds ;  but  they  are  able  to  contend  with  the  most 
terrific  storms.  While  flying  close  to  the  water,  they 
project  their  feet,  and  thus  give  the  appearance  of  walk- 
ing upon  its  surface. 

The  Fork-tailed  Petrel,  T.furcata,  Gould,  of  the  Pacific, 
is  eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  six  inches.  Hornby's 
Petrel,  T.  Hornbyi,  Gray,  of  the  Pacific,  is  eight  and  a 
quarter  inches  long.  Leach's  Petrel,  T.  Leachii,  Temm., 
of  the  North  Atlantic,  is  eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing 
six  and  a  Jialf  inches ;  color  sooty  brown ;  rump  white. 
The  Black  Stormy  Petrel,  T.  melania,  Bonap.,  of  the 
coast  of  California,  much  resembles  T.  Leachii.  Wilson's 
Stormy  Petrel,  T.  Wilsoni,  Bonap.,  of  the  Atlantic,  is 


2?8  VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 

Fig.  145-  seven*  and  a  quarter  inches 

long,  the  wing  six  inches ; 
color  dark  sooty -brown, 
rump  white;  tail  slightly 
emarginate.  The  Stormy 
Petrel,  or  Mother  Carey's 
Chicken,  T.pelagica,  Bona- 
parte, of  th6  Atlantic,  is  five 
and  three  quarters  inches 

Leach's  Petrel,  T,  Leachii,  Temm.  long,     and     the     Wing     five 

inches;  color  grayish  black  above,  sooty  brown  below, 
rump  white. 

The  Genus  Fregetta  is  represented  by  Lawrence's  Black 
and  White  Stormy  Petrel,  F.  Lawrencii,  Bonap.,  of  the 
Florida  coast,  which  is  eight  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Puffinus  has  the  bill  compressed  near  the 
end,  and  a  straight  spur  in  place  of  the  hind  toe. 

The  Greater  Shearwater,  P.  major,  Faber,  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, is  twenty  inches  long,  the  wing  thirteen  and  a  quar- 
ter inches  ;  brownish  ash  above,  grayish  white  below. 

The  Sooty  Shearwater,  P.  fiiliginosus,  Strick.,  of  the 
Atlantic ;  Mank's  Shearwater,  P.  anglontm,  Temm.,  of  the 
coast  from  New  Jersey  to  Labrador ;  the  Dusky  Shear- 
water, P.  obscums,  Lath.,  of  the  Southern  coast  of  the 
United  States ;  and  the  Cinereous  Petrel,  P.  cinereus,  Gm., 
of  the  Pacific,  are  additional  species. 

LARID^:,  OR  GULL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
swimming  birds  which  have  the  bill  generally  shorter 
than  the  head,  straight  at  the  base,  more  or  less  curved 
at  the  tip,  nostrils  linear,  and  wings  long  and  pointed. 
They  frequent  the  shores  of  all  countries,  and  also  wander 
far  inland.  They  swim  with  facility,  but  do  not  dive. 
They  feed  upon  fish,  shell-fish,  and  other  aquatic  animals. 

The  Genus  Stercorarius  comprises  the  Skua  Gulls,  or 
Jagers,  hardy  birds,  about  twenty  inches  long,  of  the  north- 


NATATORES  :    LARID^. 

ern  regions  of  both  hemispheres.  They  are  piratical, 
chasing  other  species  and  robbing  them  of  their  prey. 

The  Genus  Larus  —  Gulls  —  has  the  bill  strong,  tail 
nearly  even,  colors  light,  and  head  white. 

The  Glaucous  Gull,  or  Burgomaster,  L.  glaucus,  Brunn, 
of  the  Arctic  regions  and  southward,  is  thirty  inches 
long,  with  an  extent  of  wing  of  sixty  to  sixty-five  inches. 
The  Glaucous-winged  Gull,  L.  glaucescens,  Licht,  of  the 
northwest  coast  of  North  America,  is  twenty-seven  and 
three  quarters  inches  long,  and  the  wing  sixteen  and  a 
half  inches.  The  White-winged  Gull,  L.  leucdpterus,  Fa- 
ber,  of  Labrador  to  the  Arctic  regions,  is  twenty-six 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  seventeen  and  a  half  inches. 
The  Great  Black-backed  Gull,  L.  marinus,  Linn.,  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  thirty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  nine  inches. 
The  Herring  or  Silvery  Gull,  L.  argentatus,  Briinn,  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  interior  of  the  United  States, 
is  twenty-three  inches  long,  the  wing  eighteen  inches ; 
the  head,  neck,  under  parts,  rump,  and  tail,  pure  white  ; 
back  and  wings  light  pearl-blue.  The  Western  Gull,  L. 
occidentalis,  Aud.,  of  the  Pacific,  is  twenty-five  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  seventeen  inches.  The  California  Gull,  Z. 
calif ornicus,  Lawr.,  of  the  Pacific,  is  twenty-two  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  sixteen  and  a  half  inches.  The  Ring- 
billed  Gull,  L.  delawarensis,  Ord,  of  North  America,  is 
twenty  inches  long,  and  the  wing  fifteen  inches  ;  bill  yel- 
low, with  a  dark  brown  band.  Suckley's  Gull,  L.  Suckleyi, 
Lawr.,  of  the  Pacific,  is  seventeen  and  a  half  inches  long, 
and  the  wing  thirteen  and  three  quarters  inches. 

The  Genus  Blasipus  has  the  bill  long  and  rather  slen- 
der. It  is  represented  by  the  White-headed  Gull,  B.  Heer- 
manni,  Bonap.,  of  California,  which  is  seventeen  and  a 
half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  thirteen  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Chroicocephalus  has  the  bill  rather  slender 
and  much  compressed,  wings  long,  narrow,  and  tail  usually 


280 


VERTEBRATES  :    BIRDS. 


even.  The  colors  are  mainly  dark  above  and  light  be- 
low, and  these  are  in  beautiful  contrast.  In  spring  and 
summer  the  head  is  dark,  but  in  winter  white.  Five 
species  belong  to  North  America.  The  Laughing  Gull, 
C.  atricilla,  Linn.,  of  New  England  to  Texas,  is  seventeen 
inches  long,  the  wing  thirteen  inches.  Bonaparte's  Gull, 
C.  Philadelphia,  Lawr.,  of  all  North  America,  is  fourteen 
and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  ten  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Rissa  comprises  the  Kittewakes,  of  the  north- 
ern regions,  which  are  fourteen  to  seventeen  inches  long. 
The  Genus  Pagophila —  Ivory  Gulls  —  has  the  webs 
of  the  feet  indented.  The  gulls  of  this  genus  are  Arctic, 
found  far  from  land,  are  about  eighteen  or  nineteen  inches 
long,  and  mostly  pure  white. 

The  G&m.sRhodostetkia  contains  the  Wedge-tailed  Gull, 
R.  rosea,  Jard.,  of  the  Arctic  regions,  which  is  fourteen 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  ten  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Creagrus  contains  the  Swallow-tailed  Gull, 
C.furcatusy  Bon.,  of  California ;  and  Xema  the  Fork-tailed 
Gull,  X.  Sabinii,  Bon.,  of  the  North  Atlantic,  which  is  thir- 
teen and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the  wing  eleven  inches. 

The  Genus  Sterna  comprises 
the  Terns,  which  have  the  bill 
slender,  wings  long  and  pointed, 
tail  long  and  forked.  They  are 
generally  white  or  light  below  ; 
black,  and  bluish  or  bluish  gray, 
above.  They  feed  upon  small 
marine  animals,  which  they  dart 
down  upon.  Fourteen  or  more 
species  are  found  on  the  coasts 
of  North  America.  The  Marsh 
Tern,  6".  aranea,  Wils.,  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  as  far  north  as 

Roseate  Tern, 

s.  faradisea,  Briinn.  Connecticut,  is  nearly  fourteen 


Fig.  146. 


NATATORES:  COLYMBID^.  28 1 

inches  long.  The  Caspian  Tern,  5.  caspia,  Pallas,  of  New 
Jersey  and  northward,  is  twenty-one  and  a  half  inches 
long.  The  Royal  Tern,  5.  regia,  Gamb.,  of  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States,  is  twenty-one  inches  long.  Tru- 
deau's  Tern,  S.  Trudeauii,  Aud.,  of  New  Jersey,  is  fifteen 
inches  long.  Wilson's  Tern,  5.  Wilsoni,  Bonap.,  from 
Texas  to  Labrador,  is  nearly  fifteen  inches  long.  The 
Arctic  Tern,  5.  macroura,  Naum.,  of  the  coast  of  New 
England  and  northward,  is  fourteen  and  a  half  inches 
long.  The  Roseate  Tern,  5.  paradisea,  Briinn,  from  New 
York  to  Florida,  is  sixteen  inches  long.  The  Least  Tern, 
S.frenata,  Gamb.,  of  North  America,  is  eight  and  three 
quarters  inches  long.  The  Short-tailed  Tern,  S.plumbea, 
Wils.,  of  North  America,  is  nine  and  a  half  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Rhynchops  has  the  lower  mandible  longer 
than  the  upper.  The  Black  Skimmer,  R.  nigra,  Linn.,  of 
the  Atlantic,  is  nineteen  inches  long,  wing  fourteen  and  a 
half  inches.  It  skims  its  food  from  the  surface  of  the  water. 

COLYMBIM:,  OR  DIVER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises birds  which  are  remarkable  for  their  power  of 
swimming  and  diving,  and  which  move  with  difficulty 
upon  the  ground. 


Fig.  147. 


Great  Northern  Diver,  or  Loon,  C.  torquatus,  Briinn. 

The  Genus  Colymbus — Divers  proper  —  has  the  bill 


282 


VERTEBRATES  I    BIRDS. 


compressed  and  acute,  tail  short  and  rounded.  Birds  of 
this  genus  excel  all  others  in  diving  and  in  making  pro- 
gress beneath  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are  solitary, 
keen-sighted,  and  wary. 

The  Great  Northern  Diver,  or  Loon,  C.  torquatus, 
Briinn,  of  North  America,  is  thirty-one  inches  long,  and 
the  wing  fourteen  inches.  The  Black-throated  Diver,, 
C.  arcticus,  Linn.,  of  the  northern  regions,  is  about  twenty- 
eight  inches  long,  and  the  wing  twelve  and  a  half  inches. 
The  Red-throated  Diver,  C.  septentrionalis,  Linn.,  of  the 


Fiz.  i 


northern  regions,  is  twenty-seven 
inches  long,  and  the  wing  eleven 
and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Podiceps  —  Grebes  — 
has  the  bill  long,  slender,  and  point- 
ed ;  the  head  in  the  spring  orna- 
mented with  tufts.  These  birds  fre- 
quent lakes,  rivers,  and  the  sea-coast. 
When  alarmed,  they  remain  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water,  exposing 
only  the  bill.  Nine  species  belong 
to  North  America,  varying  from  thir- 
teen to  twenty-nine  inches  in  length. 
The  Crested  Grebe,  P.  cristatus, 
Lath.,  of  North  America,  is  twenty- 
three  and  a  half  inches  long,  the  wing  seven  and  three 
quarters  inches ;  umber  brown  above,  silvery  white  below. 
The  Genus  Podylimbus  has  the  bill  short,  and  head 
without  ruffs.  It  contains  the  Pied-bill  Grebe,  P.  podi- 
ceps,  Lawr.,  of  North  America,  which  is  fourteen  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  over  five  inches. 

ALCID.E,  OR  AUK  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
swimming  birds  which  have  the  bill  compressed  and 
pointed,  hind  toe  usually  wanting,  wings  very  short,  and 
the  legs  placed  far  back.  They  are  all  marine,  and  con- 


Crested  Grebe, 
P.  cristatus,  Lath. 


NATATORES:    AL 


fined  to  cold 
climates.  The 
Genus  A  lea  — 
Auks  proper — 
has  the  bill  ra- 
ther long,  flat- 
tened, slightly 
resembling  a 
knife-blade  in 
form,  grooved 
upon  the  sides; 
the  color  dark 
above,  white 
below. 

The    Great 
Auk,*  A.    im- 


the  Arctic  re- 
gions, is  about 
thirty  inches 
long,  and  the 
wing  five  and  a 
half  inches ;  it 
is  incapable  of 

flight.  The  Razor-billed  Auk,  A.  torda,  Linn.,  of  the  Arc- 
tic regions,  and  southward  to  New  Jersey  in  winter,  is 
seventeen  inches  long,  the  wing  eight  and  a  half  inches. 

The  Genus  Aptenodytes  comprises  the  Penguins  of  the 
cold  regions  of  the  Southern  hemisphere.  They  have 
the  wings  very  small,  are  incapable  of  flight,  and  go  on 
shore  only  to  lay  their  eggs.  The  Great  Penguin,  A.pata- 
gonica,  Linn.,  is  as  large  as  a  goose,  slate-color  above, 
white  below,  with  a  large  black  patch  in  front,  surrounded 
by  a  yellow  band. 

*  Professor  Steenstrup  reports  that  this  bird  has  become  extinct 


284 


VERTEBRATES:  BIRDS. 


Puffin,  M.  arctica,  Illig. 


'so-  The    Genus   Mormon  —  Puf- 

fins —  has  the  bill  short,  com- 
pressed, very  high,  and  the  sides 
obliquely  grooved.  Four  spe- 
cies or  more  belong  to  the  north- 
ern portions  of  America. 

The  Arctic  PufHn,  M.  arctica, 
Illig.,  is  eleven  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  the  wing  six  and  a 
half  inches.  Puffins  make  their 
nests  in  burrows,  which  they  dig 
to  the  depth  of  four  to  five  feet  in  some  cases.  Each 
lays  but  a  single  egg  in  a  season. 

The  Genus  Uria  —  Guillemots  —  has  the  bill  rather 
long,  straight  and  pointed,  wings  short,  and  claws  curved. 
Six  species  belong  to  North  America. 

The  Black  Guillemot,  U.  grylle,  Lath.,  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  is  thirteen  inches  long,  and  the  wing  six  and  a 
half  inches  ;  color  black ;  a  white  patch  on  the  wing. 

The  Genus  Rrachyrhamphus  comprises  the  Short-billed 
Guillemots.  Six  species  inhabit  the  North  Pacific. 

The  Genus  Mergullus  has  the  bill  short,  thick,  and 
slightly  lobed  on  its  edges.  It  contains  the  Little  Auk, 
Sea-Dove,  or  Dovekie,  M.  alle,  VieilL,  of  the  North  At- 
lantic, which  is  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  the 
wing  four  and  a  half  inches ;  breast  and  upper  parts 
brownish  black  ;  under  parts  white. 

Evidences  of  extinct  species  of  birds  exist  in  the  rocks 
of  both  this  and  other  countries,  and  some  species  have 
become  extinct  in  comparatively  recent  times.*  Tracks 
of  birds  which  lived  in  the  Triassic  Period  are  common 
in  the  Sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  valley. 

*  The  Dodo  was  a  large  bird,  weighing  about  fifty  pounds,  and  with  rudi- 
mentary wings,  which  in  the  seventeenth  century  inhabited  Mauritius  and 
adjacent  islands  ;  but  of  which  there  is  now  not  even  one  perfect  specimen 


REPTILES.  285 


SECTION    III. 

THE    CLASS   OF   REPTILES. 

THE  Class  of  Reptiles  comprises  cool-blooded,  ovipa- 
rous vertebrates,  which  are  covered  with  scales,  and  which 
lay  their  eggs  upon  the  land,  and  whose  young  closely 
resemble  the  parents  from  the  time  they  leave  the  shell. 
They  breathe  by  lungs,  have  a  heart  with  two  auricles 
and  one  ventricle,  and  their  digestion  is  slow.  The  rep- 
tilian heart,  at  each  of  its  contractions,  transmits  to  the 
lungs  only  a  portion  of  the  blood  which  comes  to  it  from 
the  various  parts  of  the  system,  and  the  remainder  goes 
into  the  circulation  again  without  having  been  subjected 
to  respiration.  Thus  the  blood  of  these  animals  is  acted 
upon  by  oxygen  far  less  than  in  Mammals  and  Birds, 
and  their  temperature  is  correspondingly  lower,  and  their 
habits  more  sluggish.  The  smallness  of  the  pulmonary 
vessels  enables  Reptiles  to  suspend  the  process  of  respi- 
ration without  arresting  the  progress  of  the  blood ;  and 
hence  they  are  able  to  remain  much  longer  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  water  than  any  of  the  animals  described 
in  the  previous  pages.  The  cells  of  the  lungs  are  less 
numerous,  and  larger,  than  in  the  higher  animals.  The 
brain  of  Reptiles  is  comparatively  small,  and  their  sensa- 
tions blunt.  They  continue  to  live  and  exhibit  voluntary 
motions  long  after  losing  the  brain,  and  even  after  the 

in  existence.  It  is  allied  to  the  Columbse.  The  Solitaire  is  another  large 
extinct  bird  of  the  same  region. 

The  Moa,  or  Dinornis,  a  bird  whose  remains  are  found  in  New  Zealand, 
was  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high,  and  the  tibial  bone  thirty-two  inches  long ; 
and  its  egg,  which  has  been  found  fossil,  fills  a  man's  hat ! 

The  ALpyornis  of  Madagascar  was,  as  its  bones  show,  twelve  feet  high, 
and  its  fossil  egg  is  thirteen  and  a  half  inches  long  !  This  and  the  Moa, 
and  some  other  extinct  birds  whose  remains  are  found  in  the  same  regions, 
are  allied  to  the  Struthionidae. 


286 


VERTEBRATES  I    REPTILES. 


head  is  cut  off.  The  muscles  preserve  their  irritability 
for  a  considerable  time  after  being  severed  from  the  body, 
and  even  the  heart  pulsates  for  hours  after  it  is  removed ; 
nor  does  its  loss  prevent  the  animal  from  moving  about. 
The  vertebrae  of  Reptiles  are  convex  at  one  end  and  con- 
cave at  the  other ;  and  their  teeth,  when  set  in  sockets, 
never  have  more  than  one  prong. 

This  Class  comprises  three  Orders, — Testudinata  or 
Turtles,  Sauria  or  Lizards,  and  Ophidia  or  Serpents.  Some 
writers  also  include  the  Batrachians  in  this  group. 


Fig.  151. 


SUB-SECTION   I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  TESTUDINATA,   OR  TURTLES. 

THE  Order  of  Testudinata   comprises   scaly  reptiles 
which  have  a  continuous  shield  upon  the  back,  called 

carapace,  which  is  connected 
by  bridges  to  another  shield 
below,  called  plastron,  the 
whole  forming  a  hard  cover- 
ing for  the  soft  organs  of  the 
body.  This  hard  covering 
is  formed  of  the  greatly  ex- 
panded ribs  and  sternum,  to- 
gether with  ossified  skin. 
The  head,  neck,  and  tail  are 
the  only  movable  parts  of  the 
spinal  column.  The  jaws  are 
covered  with  a  horny  sub- 
stance, and  destitute  of  true 

Skeleton  of  a  Turtle,  plastron  removed.       teeth  J     tOngUC     short,     thick, 

cv,  cervical  vertebrae;  ph,  phalanges  ;  c,     and    COVCrcd  with   fleshy  fila- 
carpus ;  ru,  radius  and  ulna ;  k,  humerus ;  .,  .  , 

sc,  scapula ;  d,  clavicle ;  co,  coracoid  ments ;  nostrils  anterior,  and 

bone  ;  dv,  dorsal  vertebra  ;  /,  pelvis  ;  /,     near  together  '  CyCS  with  three 

femur ;    (/,  tibia   and   fibula  ;    is,  tarsus ;       . 

mt,  metatarsus;  /r,  phalanges.  lids  J     and     lungS     large,     and 


TESTUDINATA  :    EMYDOID^E. 

placed  in  the  same  cavity  with  the  other  viscera.  The  Tes- 
tudinata  are  divided  into  two  Sub-Orders,  —  Chelonii  or 
Sea  Turtles,  and  Amydae  or  Fresh-water  and  Land  Turtles. 
All  lay  their  eggs  in  holes  which  they  dig  in  dry  ground, 
and,  covering  them  with  earth,  leave  them  to  hatch. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Amydae  comprises  Testudinina  or 
Land-Tortoise  Family,  Emydoidae  or  Terrapin  Family, 
Cinosternoidae  or  Mud-Turtle  Family,  Chelydroidae  or 
Snapping-Turtle  Family,  Hydraspidae,  Chelyoidae,  and 
Trionychidae  or  Trionyx  Family.  The  two  families  pre- 
ceding the  last  belong  to  South  America ;  and  the  last 
but  one  contains  the  curious  turtle  called  Matamata. 

TESTUDININA,  OR  LAND-TORTOISE  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  turtles  which  have  the  shell  high  and  arched, 
sternum  broad  and  flat,  and  the  legs  and  feet  so  arranged 
that  the  body  is  raised  free  from  the  ground. 

The  Genus  Xerobates  contains  the  Gopher,  X.  carolinus, 
Ag.,  Testudo  polyphemus,  Daudin,  of  the  Southern  States, 
which  has  the  shell  fourteen  to  eighteen  inches  long,  and 
which  burrows  in  the  ground,  digging  holes  four  or  five 
feet  deep.  It  will  be  observed  that  its  popular  name  is 
the  same  as  that  given  to  certain  members  of  the  Sciuridae. 

The  Genus  Testudo  contains  the  European  Land-Tor- 
toise, T.  grceca,  Linn.,  six  to  ten  inches  long ;  and  the 
Galapago  or  Indian  Tortoise,  T.  indica,  Linn.,  which  is 
three  feet  long,  and  is  the  largest  land  tortoise  known. 

EMYDOID.E,  OR  TERRAPIN  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises turtles  which 
have  the  shell  highest 
in  the  middle,  and  the 
sternum  flat,  broad,  and 
long.  It  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  turtle  fami- 
lies, and  its  representa- 
tives present  so  wide  a  Wood  Tortoisei  G.  insculpta,  Ag. 


288  VERTEBRATES  I    REPTILES. 

range  of  differences,  that  Agassiz  suggests  its  subdivision 
into  about  five  sub-families.  Most  of  its  members  inhabit 
bogs,  marshes,  still  streams,  and  ponds.  Some,  however, 
live  upon  the  land ;  nearly  all  are  perfectly  harmless. 
Their  food  is  both  vegetable  and  animal.  Their  eggs 
are  more  or  less  elongated,  and  covered  with  a  shell 
which  is  in  most  cases  flexible.  About  a  dozen  genera 
and  about  twenty  species  belong  to  North  America. 

The  Genus  Pseiidemys,  Ptychcmys,  Ag.,  contains  the 
Red-bellied  Terrapin,  Ps.  serrata,  Gray,  Ft.  rugosa,  Ag., 
Emys  rubriventris,  Lee.,  of  the  Middle  States,  which  has 
the  shell  about  eleven  inches  long;  the  Mobile  Turtle, 
Pt.  mobilensis,  Ag.,  which  has  the  shell  fifteen  inches 
long ;  Ps.  concinna,  Gr.,  Pt.  concinna,  Ag.,  of  the  South- 
ern States,  which  has  the  shell  about  eight  inches  long, 
dusky,  and  marked  with  yellow  lines ;  and  Ps:  hieroglyphi- 
ca,  Gr.,  Pt.  hieroglyphica,  Ag.,  of  the  Middle,  Western,  and 
Southern  States,  which  has  the  shell  over  eight  inches 
long,  olive  brown,  reticulated  with  brownish  orange. 

The  Genus  Trachemys  contains  three  species,  common 
in  the  Southern  and  Western  States,  —  T.  scabra,  Ag., 
T.  Troostii,  Ag.,  and  T.  elegans,  Ag. 

The  Genus  Graptemys  contains  the  Geographical  or 
Map  Turtles,  of  the  Middle  and  Western  States. 

The  Genus  Malacoclemmys  contains  the  Salt-water  Ter- 
rapin, M.  palustris,  Ag.,  E.  terrapin,  Holbr.,  of  the  salt- 
water marshes  from  New  York  to  South  America,  which 
has  the  shell  about  seven  and  a  half  inches  long. 

The  Genus   Chrysemys   contains   the  Painted  Turtle, 

C.  picta,  Gray,  from  New  Brunswick  to  Florida,  and  west- 
ward, which  has  the  shell  about  six  and  a  half  inches 
long,  nearly  black,  with  yellow  lines,  and  the  marginal 
plates  generally  marked  with  bright  red. 

The  Genus  Deirochelys  contains  the  Reticulated  Turtle, 

D.  reticulata,  Ag.,  of  the  Southern  States. 


TESTUDINATA:  CINOSTERNOID^S.  289 

The  Genus  Emys  contains  Blanding's  Tortoise,  E. 
meleagris,  Ag.,  Cistuda  Blandingii,  Holbr.,  from  New 
England  to  Wisconsin,  which  has  the  shell  about  eight 
inches  long,  color  black,  with  numerous  yellow  spots. 

The  Genus  Nanemys  contains  the  Speckled  Tortoise, 
N.  guttata,  Ag.,  of  North  America  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  has  the  shell  four  and  a  half  inches 
long,  black,  dotted  with  orange ;  and  Calemys,  Miihlen- 
berg's  Tortoise,  C.  Miihlenbergii,  Ag.,  of  the  Middle  States, 
which  has  the  shell  about  four  inches  long,  dark,  and  an 
orange  patch  on  each  side  of  the  neck. 

The  Genus  Glyptemys  contains  the  Wood  Tortoise 
(Fig.  152),  G.  insculpta,  Ag.,  E.  insculpta,  Lee.,  of  the 
Northern  States,  which  has  the  shell  about  eight  inches 
long,  and  presenting  a  beautifully  carved  appearance.  It 
is  found  in  woods  and  fields. 

The  Genus  Actinemys  contains  A.  marmorata,  the  only 
Emydoid  known  from  the  western  slope  of  North  Amer- 
ica. F. 

The  Genus  Cistudo  contains  the 
Box  Turtles,  which  have  the  plas- 
tron composed  of  two  parts  that 
are  movable  upon  one  axis,  and 
which  can  be  brought  into  close 
contact  with  the  carapace,  and 

r  Box  Turtle,  C.  virginea,  Ag. 

thus    completely   conceal   all   the 

extremities  of  the  animal.     They  are  found  in  dry  woods. 

The  Common  Box  Turtle,  of  the  United  States,  C.  vir- 
ginea,  Ag.,  is  about  six  and  a  half  inches  long. 

CINOSTERNOIM:,  OR  MUD-TURTLE  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  turtles  which  are  long  and  narrow,  and 
whose  average  size  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  family 
of  Testudinata.  They  are  aquatic,  but  come  out  of  the 
water  to  bask  in  the  sunshine,  yet  remain  so  near  as  to  drop 
in  on  the  slightest  alarm.  They  lay  three  to  five  hard- 
13  s 


2QO  VERTEBRATES  :    REPTILES. 

shelled  eggs,  with  a  glazed  surface.     Three  genera  and 
about  half  a  dozen  species  are  found  in  North  America. 

The  Genus  Aromochelys,  Ozotheca,  Ag.,  contains  the 
Musk  Tortoise,  A.  odoratum,  Gr.,  O.  odorata,  Ag.,  of  the 
United  States,  which  has  the  shell  three  and  a  half  inches 
long,  and  emits  a  strong  odor  of  musk. 

The  Genus  Thyrosternum  contains  the  Mud  Tortoise, 
T.pennsylvanicum,  Ag.,  Cinostermim penn.  of  authors,  from 
Pennsylvania  southward  and  westward,  which  is  three  and 
a  half  inches  long,  and  emits  a  slight  odor  of  musk. 

CHELYDROID.E,  OR  SNAPPING-TURTLE  FAMILY.  —  This 

Family  comprises  turtles  which  have  the  body  high  in 

front,  low  behind,  head  large,  neck  large  and  long,  both 

Fig.  154-  jaws    strongly 

hooked,  the  tail 
long  and  pow- 
erful, and  the 
sternum  smalL 
They  are  a- 
quatic,  but  are 

Snapping  Turtle,  C.  serpentina,  Schw.  VCrV  fVequent- 

ly  found  upon  the  land  near  the  water.  They  are  exceed- 
ingly powerful  and  voracious,  devouring  smaller  reptiles, 
fishes,  young  ducks,  and  other  animals.  When  molested, 
they  take  the  defensive,  raise  themselves  .upon  their  legs 
and  tail,  open  wide  the  mouth,  and,  forcibly  throwing  the 
body  forward,  snap  the  jaws  upon  the  assailant  with  fear- 
ful power.  They  are  fully  a  match  for  anything  which 
they  are  likely  to  me.et  with  except  man.  The  eggs  are 
numerous  and  spherical.  Three  genera  are  known,  each 
with  a  single  species,  and  two  of  these  are  American. 
The  Genus  Macroclemys,  Gypochelys,  Ag.,  contains  the 
Alligator  Turtle,  M.  lacertina,  Ag.,  of  the  Southern  States, 
which  sometimes  attains  the  weight  of  two  hundred 
pounds.  It  seizes  fish,  and,  holding  them  down  with  its 
feet,  devours  them  somewhat  as  a  hawk  devours  its  prey. 


TESTUDINATA:  TRIONYCHIM:.  291 

The  Genus  Chelydra  contains  the  Common  Snapping- 
Turtle,  C.  serpentina,  Schw.,  from  Canada  to  Florida  and 
westward  to  the  Missouri,  which  is  found  of  all  sizes, 
from  a  few  inches  to  a  total  length  of  four  feet.  It 
has  two  long,  flexible  warts  on  the  chin,  and  a  crest  of 
wedge-shaped  tubercles  on  the  tail.  This  turtle  exhibits 
its  ferocious  disposition  even  before  it  is  hatched. 

TRIONYCHIM:,  OR  TRIONYX  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  turtles  which  have  the  body  flat,  circular, 
slightly  elongated,  the  shield  more  or  less  flexible,  or 
not  completely  ossified,  neck  and  head  long,  the  latter 
terminated  by  a  long  leathery  snout,  feet  broad  and 
webbed,  five-toed,  but  with  only  three  nails  to  each  foot. 
They  inhabit  principally  the  muddy  bottoms  of  shallow 
waters,  often  burying  themselves  in  the  soft  mud,  leaving 
only  the  head  exposed.  They  take  breath  from  time  to 
time  by  carrying  the  snout  above  the  water  without  even 
moving  the  body.  They  feed  upon  small  animals ;  and 
lay  from  twelve  to  twenty  or  more  spherical  eggs,  with  a 
thick  and  very  brittle  shell.  Three  genera  and  about 
half  a  dozen  species  belong  to  North  America. 

The  Genus  Platypeltis  contains  the  Soft-shelled  Turtle, 
P.  ferox,  Fitz.,  Trionyx  feroxt  Sch.,  of  the  Southern  States, 
which  attains  sixteen  inches  in  length  ;  color  umber- 
brown  above,  with  dusky  blotches ;  below  white,  marked 
by  the  red  bloodvessels. 

The  Genus  Amy  da  is  represented  by  A.  mutica,  Fitz., 
of  New  York  and  southward  and  westward  ;  and  Aspido- 
nectes,  by  A.  spinifer,  Ag.,  from  Lake  Cham  plain  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Chelonii,  or  Sea-Turtles,  comprises 
Testudinata  which  are  perfectly  adapted  for  swimming, 
or  flying  through  the  water,  and  which  never  leave  the 
sea  except  to  lay  their  eggs,  which  are  placed  near  the 
shore  in  the  sand.  It  contains  Chelonioidae  or  Logger- 
head Family,  and  Sphargididae,  or  Sphargis  Family. 


292  VERTEBRATES:  REPTILES. 

CHELONIOID^E,  OR  LOGGERHEAD  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  turtles  whose  general  form  is  something 
like  a  heart  flattened  on  one  side,  and  furnished  in  front 
with  a  pair  of  large  flat,  wing-like,  scaly  flippers,  and  be- 
hind with  a  pair  of  scaly  rudders. 

The  Genus  Chelonia  contains  the  Green  Turtles.  The 
Green  Turtle,  C.  my  das,  Schw.,  of  the  warm  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  America,  attains  a  weight  of  two  hun- 
dred to  three  hundred  pounds,  or  more.  It  is  highly 
prized  for  food,  and  great  numbers  are  caught  on  shore 
at  night,  as  they  come  there  to  deposit  their  eggs. 

The  Genus  Eretmochelys  contains  the  Tortoise-shell  Tur- 
tles. The  Hawk-bill,  or  Tortoise-shell  Turtle,  E.  inibri- 
cata,  Fitz.,  of  the  warm  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  approaches 


Hawk-bill  Turtle,  or  Tortoise-shell  Turtle,  E.  imbricata,  Fitz. 

the  Green  Turtles  in  size,  and  the  plates  of  its  shell  fur- 
nish the  well-known  and  highly  prized  tortoise-shell. 

The  Genus  Thalassochelys  contains  true  Loggerheads. 

The  Loggerhead  Turtle,  T.  Caouana,  Fitz.,  of  the  At- 
lantic and  Mediterranean,  is  the  largest  of  all  the  turtles, 
except  Sphargis,  to  be  hereafter  noticed.  Holbrook  gives 
the  dimensions  of  one  specimen  as  follows :  head  twelve 
and  a  half  inches  long  and  ten  wide,  shell  forty-two  inches 


SAURIA.  293 

long  and  thirty-four  wide,  and  sternum  twenty-eight  inches 
long.  It  is  frequently  seen  in  mid-ocean  floating  upon 
the  waves,  apparently  asleep. 

SPHARGIDIDJE,  OR  SpHARGis  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  turtles  whose  general  form  is  something  like 
that  of  a  flattened  pyramid,  and  the  body  is  covered  with 
a  thick  coriaceous  skin,  instead  of  a  hard  shell.  Sphargis 
is  the  only  genus,  and  is  represented  by  5.  coriacea,  Gray, 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean,  which  is  the  largest 
of  all  turtles,  attaining  the  weight  of  twelve  hundred  to 
two  thousand  pounds,  in  some  cases.  One  caught  in 
Chesapeake  Bay  had  a  total  length  of  almost  eight  feet. 

Fossil  turtles  are  found  in  both  continents. 


SUB-SECTION   II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  SAURIA,  SAURIANS,   OR  LIZARDS. 

THE  Order  of  Sauria  comprises  scaly  reptiles  whose 
body  is  destitute  of  a  shell,  much  elongated,  and  the  tail 
generally  long,  and  whose  mouth  is  large,  and  armed  with 
teeth.  With  few  exceptions,  they  have  four  feet,  which 
are  generally  furnished  with  nails.  The  ribs  are  mov- 
able, partially  connected  to  the  sternum,  and  are  raised 
and  depressed  in  respiration.  The  lungs  generally  ex- 
tend far  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  comprises  the 
Crocodilidae  or  Crocodile  Family,*  Lacertinidae  or  true 
Lizard  Family,  Iguanidae  or  Iguana  Family,  Geckotidae 
or  Gecko  Family,  Chameleonidae  or  Chameleon  Family, 
Scincoidae  or  Skink  Family,  Chalcidae  or  Glass-snake 
Family,  and  many  fossil  reptiles,  f 

*  Regarded  as  an  Order  by  many  authors. 

f  The  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Cretaceous  rocks,  in  some  localities,  abound 
with  the  remains  of  extinct  reptiles,  and  many  of  them,  in  the  two  latter 
groups  especially,  are  those  of  Saurians  of  the  most  wonderful,  and,  in 
many  cases,  gigantic  forms.  The  Megalosaurus  was  a  terrestrial  Saurian, 
thirty  feet  long.  The  Iguanodon,  herbivorous  in  its  habits,  was  thirty  feet 


294  VERTEBRATES:  REPTILES. 

CROCODILID^:,  OR  CROCODILE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  the  Crocodile  of  the  Nile  and  the  Gavial  of 
the  Ganges,  —  bulky  reptiles,  that  attain  the  length  of 
thirty  feet,  —  and  the  Alligators  of  America. 

The  Genus  Alligator  —  Alligators  —  has  the  muzzle 
broad,  obtuse,  and  greatly  resembling  that  of  the  pike. 
The  teeth  are  unequal,  the  fourth  lower  ones  largest,  and 
entering  into  holes  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  toes  semi- 
palmate.  Alligators  are  found  from  the  Carolinas  to  Para- 
guay, and  within  these  limits  there  are  several  species. 

The  Common  Alligator,  A.  mississippiensis,  Gray,  of 
the  Southern  States,  attains  the  length  of  fifteen  feet  or 

Fig.  156. 


Alligator,  A.  mississippiensis,  Gray. 

more.  It  is  exceedingly  voracious,  devouring  all  kinds 
of  animal  substances,  and  is  particularly  attracted  by  fish, 
muskrats,  dogs,  ducks,  or  other  animals  in  motion. 

long,  the  femur  thirty-three  inches  in  length.  The  Hylceosaiirus  was  twenty 
feet  long ;  and  the  Mosasaurus,  twenty-five  feet.  •  The  Ichthyosauri  were 
ten  to  forty  feet  long,  with  paddles  adapting  them  for  swimming ;  and  the 
jaws  were  in  some  cases  six  feet  long,  and  the  cavity  for  the  eye  fourteen 
inches  in  diameter.  The  Plesiosaiiri  were  also  swimmers,  twenty-five  to 
forty  feet  long,  with  the  neck  long,  snake-like,  and  containing  twenty  to  forty 
vertebrae.  The  Pterodactyli  were  flying  Saurians,  a  foot  long,  with  a  spread 
of  wing  of  about  three  feet.  These  strange  forms,  and  others,  represented 
by  many  species,  are  found  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 


SAURIA  :    LACERTID.E    AND    IGUANID^.  2Q5 

LACERTID.E,  OR  LIZARD  FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises scaly  reptiles  which  have  the  head  in  the  form  of 
a  quadrangular  pyramid  with  the  apex  in  front ;  tongue 
thin,  more  or  less  extensible,  and  with  its  base  in  some 
cases  lodged  in  a  sheath,  and  its  apex  always  bind  ;  body 
and  tail  much  elongated,  the  latter  in  some  cases  several 
times  the  length  of  the  former ;  feet  four,  five-toed,  and 
armed  with  nails  ;  the  scales  beneath  the  body  and  around 
the  tail  arranged  in  transverse  parallel  bands,  and  the 
abdominal  scales  always  larger  than  those  upon  the  back. 
They  are  the  most  agile,  beautiful,  and  innocent  of  all 
the  Sauria.  The  larger  members  live  upon  the  ground, 
but  many  of  the  smaller  ones  upon  trees.  The  species 
are  numerous. 

The  Genus  Ameiva  has  the  tail  round,  and  the  scales 
of  the  belly  broader  than  long.  It  contains  the  Six-lined 
or  Striped  Lizard,  A.  Fig.  i57. 

sex-lineata,     Cuv.,      of 
the    Southern    States, 
which  is   nine   to  ten 
inches   or  more   long, 
dark  brown  above,  and 
with  six  yellow,  longi- 
tudinal lines ;  abdomen          six-lined  Lizard,  A.  «*-//««/«,  Cuv. 
bluish-silvery  white.     It  is  timid,  harmless,  quick  in  its 
movements,  runs  swiftly,  and  feeds  upon  insects,  which  it 
seeks  at  the  close  of  the  day. 

The  Genus  Lacerta  contains  the  Monitor,  L.  nilotica,. 
Linn.,  of  the  Nile,  which  is  five  or  six  feet  long,  and  is  said 
to  destroy  the  eggs  of  the  crocodile.  It  is  sculptured  on 
the  ancient  monuments. 

IGUANID,E,  OR  IGUANA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises scaly  reptiles  which  are  lizard-like  in  general  ap- 
pearance, but  which  haye  their  tongue  thick,  fleshy,  non- 
extensible,  and  only  emarginated  at  the  tip. 


296  VERTEBRATES:  REPTILES. 

The  Genus  Iguana  has  the  body  and  tail  covered  with 
small  imbricated  scales,  the  back  furnished  with  a  range 
of  spines,  and  throat  with  a  pendent,  compressed  dewlap. 

The  Common  Iguana,  Ig.  tuberculata,  of  South  Amer- 
ica, is  four  to  five  feet  long,  greenish,  the  tail  banded  with 
brown.  It  lives  upon  trees.  Its  flesh  is  used  for  food. 

The  Genus  Draco  comprises  the  Dragons  of  the  East 
Indies.  They  have  their  first  six  false  ribs  extending  out- 
wards, and  supporting  a  fold  of  skin,  and  thus  forming  a 
.sort  of  wing  which  acts  like  a  parachute  in  sustaining 
them  as  they  leap  from  one  tree  or  branch  to  another; 
but  which  does  not  enable  them  to  truly  fly. 

The  Genus  Anolius  has  the  skin  of  the  four  external 
toes  developed  beneath  to  form  an  oval  disk ;  the  tail  is 
cylindrical  and  very  long. 

The  Green  Lizard,  A.  carolinensis,  Cuv.,  of  the  South- 
ern States,  is  six  and  three  quarters  inches  long,  golden 
green  above,  and  the  abdomen  greenish  white.  It  is 
very  active,  running  up  trees  and  moving  from  branch  to 
branch  with  swiftness.  It  is  common  about  the  garden 
and  buildings,  frequently  entering  the  houses,  and  some- 
times moves  over  the  tables  and  other  furniture  in  search 
of  flies.  It  is  able  to  walk  upon  the  walls  and  ceilings, 
and  even  upon  the  window-panes. 

The  Genus  Tropidolepis  is  represented  by  T.  undulatus, 
of  the  United  States  south  of  the  forty-third  parallel. 
It  is  over  seven  inches  long,  grayish  above  with  trans- 
verse, undulating  black  bands,  which  have  their  posterior 
margins  marked  with  white.  Below,  on  each  side  of  the 
abdomen,  is  a  band  of  green,  surrounded  with  black ;  and 
a  light  central  band  forms  a  cross  with  a  similarly  colored 
transverse  band  between  the  anterior  extremities.  It  in- 
habits pine-forests,  runs  to  the  tops  of  the  tallest  trees, 
and  feeds  upon  insects. 

The  Genus  Phrynosoma  —  Horned   Toads  —  has  the 


SAURIA:  GECKOTID^:  AND  CHAMELEONID^E.       297 

head  short,  rounded  in  front,  and  bordered  at  the  sides 
and  behind  with  spines ;  the  body  short,  oval,  much  de- 
pressed, with  a  dentated  margin  at  the  flank,  and  covered 
above  with  three-sided  tubercles  arising  from  small  imbri- 
cated scales.  Several  Fig.  158. 
species  are  found  in 
the  central  and  western 
parts  of  North  America. 
The  Horned  Toad, 
P.  cornuta,  Gray,  from 
Missouri  to  Texas,  is 

OVer     four    and    a    half  Horned  Toad,  P.  cornuta,  Gray. 

inches  long,  ash-color,  marked  with  yellowish  and  dark ; 
abdomen  and  thorax  silvery  white  with  dusky  spots.  It 
moves  with  rapidity  upon  the  ground,  but  never  climbs. 
It  is  sluggish  in  confinement. 

GECKOTID^:,  OR  GECKO  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises Saurians  which  have  not  the  elongated,  graceful 
form  of  the  preceding  lizards,  but  are  more  or  less  flat- 
tened, and  their  gait  is  a  heavy  kind  of  crawling.  The 
tongue  is  fleshy,  and  hot  extensible ;  their  jaws  are  fur- 
nished with  a  range  of  very  small  teeth ;  and  their  toes 
have  a  flattened  disk,  which  enables  them  to  move  even 
on  walls  and  ceilings.  Many  genera  and  species  are 
known  in  the  warmer  parts  of  both  continents. 

CHAMELEONIM:,  OR  CHAMELEON  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  lizards  which  have  the  body  compressed, 
skin  roughened,  tail  round  and  prehensile,  and  feet  five- 
toed.  The  tongue  is  cylindrical,  fleshy,  and  extremely 
extensible ;  teeth  trilobate,  and  eyes  large,  but  covered 
with  skin  except  a  small  hole  opposite  the  pupil,  and 
possessing  the  faculty  of  moving  independently  of  each 
other.  Their  lungs  are  so  enormous,  that,  when  inflated, 
their  body  seems  to  be  transparent,  —  a  circumstance 
which  led  the  ancients  to  believe  that  these  animals  fed 
13* 


298  VERTEBRATES  :    REPTILES. 

on  air.  They  live  upon  trees,  are  excessively  slow  in 
their  movements,  and  often  remain  motionless  upon  a 
branch  for  hours.  The  great  size  of  their  lungs  is 
probably  the  source  of  the  power  of  the  Chameleons  to 
change  their  color,  which  takes  place  according  to  their 
feelings,  and  not  in  conformity  with  the  hues  of  the  bodies 
on  which  they  rest,  or  near  which  they  pass.  The  very 
extensible  tongue  has  the  extremity  covered  with  a  viscid 
secretion  ;  and  when  the  animal  has  marked  an  insect,  it 
darts  forth  this  organ,  and  quicker  than  a  glance  of  the 
eye  secures  the  prize  for  food.  Eight  or  ten  species  or 
more  inhabit  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World. 

SCINCOID^E,  OR  SKINK  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises lizards  which  have  the  bocly  cylindrical,  and  cov- 
ered with  smooth  scales,  variable  in  form  and  size,  and 
disposed  in  the  form  of  a  quincunx.  The  head  is  covered 
with  large,  thin,  angular  plates  ;  the  neck  is  of  the  same 
size  as  the  thorax ;  tongue  free,  flat,  and  notched,  and 
not  retractile  into  a  sheath  ;  and  the  jaws  are  furnished 
with  closely  set  teeth.  The  body  and  tail  seem  to  be  one 
continued  and  uniform  piece.  The  genera  and  species 
are  quite  numerous. 

The  Genus  Plestiodon  has  the  head  very  large  and 
broad  behind,  but  contracted  in  front  of  the  eyes. 

The  Scorpion,  or  Red-headed  Skink,  P.  erythrocephahis, 
Holbrook,  of  the  Southern  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  is 
twelve  or  thirteen  inches  long,  olive  brown  above,  the 
throat  and  abdomen  yellowish  white,  and  the  head  above 
bright  red.  It  lives  in  hollow  trees,  and  seldom  comes  to 
the  ground  except  for  food  and  water.  It  is  generally 
timid,  but  when  captured  is  very  fierce,  and  bites  severely ; 
but  its  bite  is  not  venomous,  as  is  generally  believed. 

The  Genus  Scincus  contains  the  Five-lined  Skink, 
5.  quinquelineatus,  Daud.,  of  the  Southern  States,  which 
is  about  ten  inches  long,  the  head  pale  red,  with  six  ob- 


SAURIA:  CHALCIM:.  299 

scure  white  lines,  and  the  body  above  olive  brown,  with 
five  pale  white,  longitudinal  lines,  and  a  black  lateral 
band  ;  and  the  Blue-tailed  Lizard,  S.fasciatus,  Holbr.,  of 
the  United  States,  which  is  eight  and  a  half  inches  long ; 
the  head  bluish  black,  with  six  straw-colored  lines  ;  body 
bluish  black,  with  five  longitudinal,  straw-colored  lines ; 
tail  ultramarine  blue,  the  throat  and  abdomen  white. 

The  Genus  Lygosoma  contains  the  Ground  Lizard, 
L.  lateralis,  D.  &  B.,  of  the  southern  and  western  portions 
of  the  United  States,  which  is  four  and  three  quarters 
inches  long,  with  a  short  head  and  very  long  tail ;  the 
body,  tail,  and  legs  of  a  bronze  or  chestnut  color,  throat 
silver-white,  abdomen  yellow,  and  there  is  a  broad,  lateral 
black  band  from  the  head  nearly  to  the  extremity  of  the 
tail.  It  may  be  seen  by  thousands  in  the  thick  forests 
of  oak  and  hickory  in  Carolina  and  Georgia,  after  sunset, 
when  they  emerge  from  their  hiding-places  to  hunt  for 
worms  and  insects. 

The  Genus  Seps  comprises  reptiles  which  have  a  longer 
body  and  smaller  feet  than  the  Skinks  ;  and  Bipes,  those 
which  differ  from  Seps  in  the  absence  of  forefeet.  Found 
in  South  America  and  in  the  Eastern  hemisphere. 

CHALCID.E,  OR  GLASS-SNAKE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises. lizards  whose  body  is  elongated,  serpent-like, 
without  feet,  or  with  those  but  slightly  developed,  and 
there  is  generally  a  deep  groove  along  the  flanks.  The 
genera  placed  under  this  family  really  represent  several 
families,  and  from  their  general  resemblance  to  snakes 
have  been  regarded  by  some  authors  as  belonging  to  the 
next  order. 

The  Genus  Ophisaurus  is  represented  by  the  Glass- 
snake,  O.  ventralis,  Baud.,  of  the  Southern  and  Western 
States,  which  is  twenty  to  forty  inches  long,  the  body  and 
tail  above  yellowish  green  spotted  with  black,  and  the  un- 
der surface  yellow.  This  snake-shaped  lizard  inhabits 


300  VERTEBRATES:  REPTILES. 

dry  places,  and  spends  much  of  the  time  in  the  ground. 
The  vertebras  of  the  tail  are  so  easily  separated,  that  it  is 
broken  by  a  very  slight  blow ;  and  this  fragility  of  the 
tail  has  gained  for  this  animal  its  popular  name. 

The  Genus  Anguis  contains  the  Blind-Worms. 

The  Common  Blind- Worm,  A.fragilis,  of  Europe,  is 
over  a  foot  long,  silvery  yellow  above,  blackish  beneath. 

The  Genus  Amphisbcena,  comprising  the  Double  Walk- 
ers, has  the  head  and  body  nearly  of  uniform  size,  —  a 
form  which  enables  them  to  move  backwards  or  forwards 
with  equal  facility.  They  inhabit  the  hot  regions  of  Soulh 
America. 

The  Genus  Typhlops  comprises  reptiles  that  externally 
resemble  earth-worms.  They  are  found  in  the  hot  regions 
of  both  continents.  The  eye  is  a  mere  point,  and  scarcely 
visible  through  the  skin. 

SUB-SECTION    III. 

THE  ORDER   OF   OPHIDIA,   OR   SERPENTS. 

THE  Order  of  Ophidia  comprises  scaly  reptiles  which 
are  exceedingly  long,  and  without  feet,  and  which  move 
by  the  alternate  folds  of  their  long  and  slender  body. 
The  ribs  and  vertebrae  make  up  most  of  the  skeleton,  the 
sternum  being  wholly  wanting.  The  vertebrae  join  each 
other  as  a  ball  and  socket  joint,  thus  giving  great  free- 
dom of  motion.  The  bones  of  the  jaws  and  mouth,  which 
in  the  higher  animals  are  more  or  less  firmly  united,  are 
connected  in  animals  of  this  order  only  by  extensible 
ligaments,  —  an  arrangement  by  which  the  mouth  may 
be  distended  so  as  to  receive,  an  object  of  much  greater 
diameter  than  the  serpent  itself.  Both  the  jaws  and  pala- 
tine arches  are  almost  always  armed  with  teeth.  These 
are  solid,  and  situated  on  the  margins  of  the  maxillary 
bones.  As  serpents  do  not  masticate  their  food,  their 


OPHIDIA:  COLUBERID^.  301 

teeth  are  adapted  simply  to  seizing,  killing,  and  retain- 
ing prey,  and  are  accordingly  pointed,  smooth,  and  arched 
towards  the  throat.  The  tongue  is  long,  slender,,  bifid, 
extensible,  and  retractile  within  a  sheath  placed  at  the 
root ;  the  eyes  are  without  movable  lids ;  trachea  very 
long  ;  lung  single,  and  extending  nearly  the  whole  length 
of  the  body.  Serpents  cast  their  skins  at  least  once  a 
year.  They  lay  eggs  with  a  calcareous,  flexible  shell ; 
some  of  them,  however,  are  ovoviviparous ;  that  is,  the 
eggs  are  hatched  while  still  in  the  body  of  the  parent. 
This  is  especially  true  of  venomous  snakes.  The  Order 
comprises  a  thousand  or  more  known  species.  Baird  and 
Girard  enumerate  over  thirty  genera  and  a  hundred  and 
nineteen  species  belonging  to  North  America. 

BOIDJE,  OR  BOA  FAMILY. — This  Family  comprises  ser- 
pents which  have  both  jaws  armed  with  teeth,  and  rudi- 
ments' of  hind  limbs,  or  spur-like  appendages.  Some  of . 
them  are  the  largest  of  all  serpents,  attaining  the  length 
of  thirty  to  forty  feet,  and  are  able  to  swallow  dogs,  deer, 
and  even  oxen,  after  having  crushed  them  in  their  power- 
ful folds.  Such  are  the  Boas  and  Anacondas  of  South 
America,  and  the  Pythons  of  Africa  and  the  East  Indies. 
Wenona,  with  one  small  species  found  in  Oregon,  is  our 
only  genus  of  this  family. 

COLUBRID/E,  OR  COLUBER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  serpents  which  have  both  jaws  fully  provided 
with  teeth,  but  have  no  rudiments  of  hind  limbs.  It  in- 
cludes a  large  proportion  of  all  snakes,  and  is  represented 
in  all  countries  where  snakes  are  found. 

The  Genus  Eutania  —  Striped  Snakes  —  has  the  body 
moderately  stout,  or  slender,  scales  carinated,  the  skin 
very  extensible.  The  general  color  is  three  light  stripes 
on  a  darker  ground,  the  intervals  with  alternating  spots. 
It  is  represented  by  several  species  in  the  United  States. 
Length  twelve  to  thirty-six  inches. 


3<D2  VERTEBRATES  :    REPTILES. 

The  Genus  Nerodia  —  Water  Snakes  —  has  the  body 
generally  stout,  tail  one  fourth  or  fifth  the  total  length, 
and  the  scales  carinated.  The  general  color  is  three 
series  of  dark  blotches  on  a  lighter  ground  ;  sometimes 
almost  uniform  brown  or  blackish.  The  abdomen  is  uni- 
form or  spotted.  There  are  four  or  five  species  in  the 
United  States.  Length  twelve  to  fifty  inches. 

The  Genus  Regina  comprises  aquatic  snakes  with  a 
slender  body,  tail  very  much  tapering,  and  forming  one 
third  or  one  fourth  the  total  length,  and  scales  carinated. 
The  general  color  is  five  or  more  longitudinal  dark  bands 
on  a  lighter  ground,  and  the  abdomen  uniform,  or  also 
provided  with  similar  bands.  Four  species  are  found  in 
the  Middle,  Southern,  and  Western  States.  Length  nine 
to  twenty-four  inches. 

The  Genus  Heterodon — Hog-nose  Snakes — has  a  short 
stout  body,  short  tail,  and  the  head,  neck,  and  body  capa- 
ble of  excessive  dilatation.  Two  or  three  species  are  found 
in  the  Southern  and  Southwestern  States,  and  one  extends 
into  Massachusetts.  Length  twelve  to  thirty-six  inches. 

The  Genus  Pituophis  contains  the  Pine  Snake,  or  Bull 
Snake,  P.  melanoleiicus,  Holbr.,  of  the  pine  forests  of  New 
Jersey,  and  southward  and  westward,  which  attains  the 
length  of  nine  feet  or  more  ;  whitish  above,  with  a  series 
of  very  large  dark  blotches.  Other  species  are  found  from 
Texas  to  California. 

The  Genus  Scotophis  has  the  body  cylindrical,  very 
long,  color  brown  or  black,  in  quadrate  blotches  on  the 
back  and  sides.  Several  species  are  found  in  North 
America,  from  two  to  five  feet  or  more  in  length. 

The  Genus  Ophibolus  has  the  body  thick,  tail  and 
head  short,  and  eyes  very  small ;  color  black,  brown,  or 
red,  crossed  by  lighter.  Baird  and  Girard  mention  nine 
species  found  in  the  United  States.  '  O.  Boy  Hi,  B.  &  G., 
of  California,  is  black,  with  more  than  thirty  broad,  ivory- 


OPHIDIA:  COLUBERIM:. 


303 


white  transverse  bands ;  length  about  thirty  inches.  The 
King  Snake,  a  Sayi,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  Gulf  States,  is  black 
above,  each  scale  with  a  large  yellow  spot  in  the  centre  ; 
length  about  forty  inches. 

The  Thunder  Snake,  or  Chain  Snake,  O.  getulus,  B.  & 
G.,  from  New  York  to  Mississippi,  is  black,  crossed  above 
by  about  thirty  narrow  lines  bifurcating  on  the  flanks; 
length  thirty  to  forty  inches  or  more. 

The  House,  Milk,  or  Chicken  Snake,  O.  eximius,  B.  & 
G.,  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  is  grayish  ash, 
with  a  dorsal  series  of  upwards  of  fifty  transverse  ellip- 
tical, chocolate  blotches,  and  with  two  other  alternating 
series  on  each  side ;  length  twenty-five  to  forty  inches. 

The  Genus  Georgia  is  represented  by  the  Indigo  or 
Gopher  Snake,  G.  Couperi,  B.  &  G.,  of  Georgia,  which  is 
sixty  inches  long,  black  above,  slate  beneath. 

The    Genus   Basca-  Fig  lsg> 

nion  contains  the  Black 
Snakes,  three  species 
of  which  are  found  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Common  Black 
Snake,  B.  constrictor,  B. 
&  G.,  of  North  Amer- 
ica, is  three  to  five  feet 
long  or  more,  lustrous 
black  above,  greenish 
black  beneath  ;  chin 
and  throat  white.  It 
climbs  trees  and  bush- 
es, and  devours  the 
young  of  birds,  but  is 
perfectly  harmless  to 
man. 

The     GenUS     MaStl-  Black  Snake,  B.  constrictor,  B.  &  G. 


304  VERTEBRATES  :    REPTILES. 

cophis —  Coach-whip  Snakes  —  has  the  general  features 
of  the  preceding  one,  but  is  more  slender ;  length  four 
to  five  feet  or  more.  Six  species  inhabit  the  Southern 
and  Southwestern  States. 

The  Genus  Leptophis  —  comprising  the  Green  Snakes 
of  the  Southern  and  Southwestern  States — has  a  conical 
head,  very  small  neck,  and  very  long  tail ;  length  twenty 
to  thirty  inches. 

The  Genus  Chlorosoma  is  represented  by  the  Green 
Snake,  C.  vernalis,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  Northern  States  and 
southward,  which,  is  uniform  green,  darker  above  and 
lighter  beneath  ;  length  twelve  to  twenty  inches. 

The  Genus  Contia  is  represented  by  C.  mitis,  B.  &  G., 
of  the  Pacific  Slope,  which  is  brown,  with  two  longitudi- 
nal light  bands,  below  which  is  a  series  of  black  dots. 

The  Genus  Diadophis  —  Ring-necked  Snakes  —  has 
the  head  distinct,  body  slender,  color  uniform,  with  a  light 
ring  on  the  occipital  region  ;  length  ten  to  twenty  inches. 
Three  or  four  species  are. found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Genus  Rhinostoma  is  represented  by  the  Scarlet 
Snake,  R.  coccinea,  Holbr.,  of  the  Southern  States,  which 
is  crimson,  crossed  by  pairs  of  black  rings  enclosing  a  yel- 
low one  ;  length  twelve  to  eighteen  inches. 

The  Genus  Rhinocheilus  contains  R.  Lecontii,  B.  &  G., 
of  California,  which  is  crossed  by  about  thirty-three  quad- 
rate black  blotches ;  length  about  twenty  inches. 

The  Genus  Haldea  contains  the  Brown  Snake,  H.  stria- 
tula,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  Southern  States,  which  is  grayish 
above,  salmon  beneath  ;  length  eight  to  nine  inches. 

The  Genus  Farancia  contains  the  Red-bellied,  or  Horn 
Snake,  F.  abacurus,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  Southern  States,  which 
is  bluish  black,  with  subquadrate  red  spots  on  the  flanks ; 
under  parts  red,  with  bluish  black  irregular  spots ;  length 
about  thirty  inches. 

The  Genus  Abastor  is  represented  by  A.  erythrogram- 


OPHIDIA  :    CROTALID^E.  305 

mus,  Gray,  of  the  Southern  States,  which  is  bluish  black 
above,  with  three  longitudinal  lines  of  red  ;  length  about 
fifteen  inches. 

The  Genus  Virginia  is  represented  by  V.  Valeria,  B.  & 
G.,  of  the  Southern  States,  which  is  yellowish  above,  with 
minute  black  dots  ;  length  eight  to  ten  inches. 

The  Genus  Celuta  is  represented  by  the  Ground  or 
Worm  Snake,  C.  amcena,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  Connecticut  val- 
ley and  southwestward,  which  is  uniform  chestnut-brown, 
bright  salmon  beneath  ;  length  seven  to  twelve  inches. 

The  Genus  Tantilla  is  represented  by  T.  coronata,  B.  & 
G.,  of  Mississippi,  which  has  the  body  reddish  brown,  with 
a  black  band  across  the  neck  above ;  and  T.  gracilis,  B. 
&  G.,  of  Texas,  which  is  greenish  brown  above,  lighter 
beneath  ;  length  about  eight  inches. 

The  Genus  Osceola  is  represented  by  O.  elapsoidea,  B.  & 
G.,  of  the  Southern  States,  which  is  red,  crossed  by  pairs 
of  black  rings,  each  pair  enclosing  a  white  one. 

The  Genus  Storeria  has  the  head  subelliptical,  and  dis- 
tinct from  the  body. 

S.  Dekayi,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  United  States,  is  gray  above, 
with  a  clay-colored  dorsal  band,  on  each  side  of  which  is 
a  double  series  of  black  dots.  The  lower  parts  are  gen- 
erally straw-color,  each  plate  with  four  minute  black  dots ; 
length  nine  to  thirteen  inches. 

6".  occipito-maculata,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  United  States,  is 
gray  salmon-color  below,  and  there  are  three  light-colored 
spots  behind  the  head  ;  length  nine  to  eleven  inches. 

CROTALID^E,  OR  RATTLESNAKE  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  serpents  whose  upper  jaw  contains  but  few 
teeth,  but  is  armed  with  sharp-pointed,  perforated  or 
grooved,  movable  poison-fangs.  These  fangs  are  con- 
cealed in  a  fold  of  the  gum,  or  raised,  at  the  will  of  the 
animal.  They  connect  with  a  gland  situated  near  the 
eye,  which  furnishes  the  fluid  poison.  When  the  snake 


306  VERTEBRATES:  REPTILES. 

bites,  the  fangs  are  raised,  and  the  pressure  of  the  tem- 
poral muscles  upon  the  gland  forces  the  poison  along  the 
fang  into  the  wound.  These  animals  have  a  deep  pit 
between  the  eye  and  the  nostril,  and  the  rattlesnakes 
proper  have  the  tail  furnished  with  a  rattle,  with  which 
they  make  a  peculiar  noise  when  they  apprehend  danger. 

The  Genus  Crotalus  comprises  the  Rattlesnakes  proper. 
Several  species  are  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Common  Rattlesnake,  C.  dzirissus,  Linn.,  is  three 
to  four  feet  long,  sulphur  brown  above,  with  two  rows  of 
confluent,  lozenge-shaped  brown  spots ;  tail  black.  It 
is  generally  sluggish,  and  never  attacks  animals  unless 
disturbed  or  hungry.  But  the  slightest  noise  will  arouse 
it,  when  it.  immediately  coils,  moves  the  rattles  violently, 
and  strikes  at  whatever  comes  within  reach.  It  never 
pursues  the  object  of  its  anger,  but  strikes  on  the  spot, 
and,  recoiling,  repeats  the  blow  as  often  as  it  can.  This 
snake  feeds  upon  young  hares,  squirrels,  and  birds,  which 
it  secures  by  lying  in  wait  for  them.  Its  reported  charm- 
ing power  is  probably  a  mere  notion  which  has  no  foun- 
dation in  fact.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  num- 
ber of  rattles  indicates  the  age,  —  one  rattle  being  added 
each  year ;  but  this  is  not  so.  In  some  cases  there  are 
more  than  one  added  in  a  year,  and  in  others,  one  or 
more  is  lost. 

The  Diamond  Rattlesnake,  C.  adamanteus,  Beauv.,  of 
Carolina  and  southward,  attains  the  length  of  eight  feet. 

The  Genus  Crotalophorus  has  the  tail  with  a  rattle,  and 
top  of  the  head  covered  with  plates,  as  in  Coluber.  Five 
species  are  stated  to  be  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Prairie  Rattlesnake,  or  Massasauga,  C.  tergeminus, 
Holbr.,  of  the  Prairies,  is  twenty  to  thirty  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Ancistrodon  has  the  tail  without  a  rattle, 
and  loral  plates  present. 

The  Copperhead,  A.  contortrix,  B.  &  G.,  of  the  Southern 


OPHIDIA  :    VIPERID^:    AND   ELAPID^E.  307 

States  and  northward,  is  about  twenty-four  inches  long, 
light  chestnut,  with  darker  transverse  bars.  It  chooses 
dark,  shady  places,  or  meadows  of  high  grass. 

The  Genus  Toxicophis  has  the  tail  without  a  rattle,  and 
loral  plates  absent.  The  species  are  aquatic. 

The  Water  Moccasin,  or  Cotton  Mouth,  T.  piscivorus, 
B.  &  G.,  of  the  Southern  States,  is  about  twenty-four 
inches  long,  dark  chestnut-brown,  with  transverse  bars  of 
black.  In  summer,  this  snake  is  seen  on  the  low  branches 
whkh  hang  over  the  water,  into  which  it  falls  on  the 
slightest  alarm.  It  is  more  to  be  dreaded  than  even  the 
rattlesnake,  as  it  attacks  everything  that  comes  in  its 
way,  and  without  warning. 

VIPERID^,  OR  VIPER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
venomous  snakes  which  are  without  pits  behind  the  nos- 
trils. They  belong  to  the  Old  World. 

ELAPID.E.  —  This  Family  comprises  venomous  snakes 
which  have  fixed  and  permanently  erect  fangs. 

The  Genus  Elaps- —  Harlequin  Snakes  —  has  a  slender 
body,  never  exceeding  three  or  four  feet  long,  and  the 
upper  jaw  with  an  erect  fang  on  each  side. 

The  Harlequin  Snake,  E.fulvius,  Cuv.,  of  the  southern 
and  western  portions  of  the  United  States,  is  red,  annu- 
lated  with  black,  margined  with  yellow ;  length  eighteen 
to  thirty  inches. 

The  Genus  Naia  comprises  vipers  which  can  raise  up 
and  draw  forward  the  anterior  ribs,  so  as  to  dilate  the 
forward  part  of  the  body  into  a  more  or  less  broad  disk. 

The  Cobra,  or  Spectacled  Viper,  N.  tripudians,  Schleg., 
of  India,  is  distinguished  by  a  black  line,  resembling  the 
figure  of  a  pair  of  spectacles,  traced  on  the  widened  por- 
tion of  its  disk.  Its  bite  is  deadly.  The  jugglers  of  India 
extract  its  fangs,  and  then  teach  it  to  dance. 

The  Haje,  N.  ftaje,  Geoff.,  of  Africa,  has  the  neck  less 
wide  than  that  of  the  preceding.  The  ancient  Egyptians 


308  VERTEBRATES:  BATRACHIANS. 

made  it  the  emblem  of  the  protecting  divinity  of  the 
world,  and  sculptured  it  on  the  sides  of  a  globe  upon  the 
gates  of  their  temples.  By  pressing  this  snake  on  the 
nape,  the  jugglers  of  Egypt  throw  it  into  a  stiff  and 
immovable  condition,  which  they  call  turning  it  into  a 
rod.  It  is  probably  the  Asp  of  Egypt,  and  Asp  of  Cleo- 
patra. 

HYDROPHID,E,  OR  SEA-SNAKE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  serpents  which  have  the  posterior  parts  of  the 
body  and  tail  much  compressed,  and  raised  vertically. 
They  inhabit  the  warm  parts  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
Oceans,  and  the  streams  of  the  East  Indies,  and  are  very 
venomous.  They  are  mainly  of  small  size. 


SECTION    IV. 

THE  CLASS  OF  BATRACHIA,  BATRACHIANS,  OR  AMPHIBIANS. 

THE  Class  of  Batrachians  comprises  cool-blooded,  ovip- 
arous vertebrates  which  are  destitute  of  scales,  and  which 
in  most  cases  lay  their  numerous  eggs  in  the  water  or  in 
damp  places,*  and  whose  young  hatch  in  an  immature 
condition,  and  afterwards  undergo  various  changes  before 
they  acquire  the  form  of  the  parents;  The  young  breathe 
by  gills  similar  to  those  of  fishes,  and  in  most  cases  live 
in  the  water  ;  but  in  the  adult  state,  these  animals,  with 
few  exceptions,  breathe  by  lungs,  like  scaly  reptiles.  The 

Some  Tree-toads  lay  their  eggs  on  trees  and  places  overhanging  water, 
and  the  young,  as  soon  as  hatched,  drop  into  .the  water. 

Ptpa,  or  Surinam  Toad,  of  South  America,  lays  its  eggs  in  the  water, 
after  which  they  are  collected  by  the  male,  and  placed  on  the  back  of  the 
female,  the  skin  enlarging  in  such  a  manner  as  to  enclose  the  eggs  in  cells  ; 
here  the  development  goes  on  till  the  young  come  forth  as  perfectly  formed 
toads. 

A  small  frog  of  Venezuela  has  a  pouch  upon  the  back  in  which  the  eggs 
are  carried  and  hatched. 


ANOURA. 


309 


Fig.  162. 


lungs  are  twor  equal,  and  the  Fig- t6cx 
heart  is  composed  of  only  one 
auricle  and  one  ventricle.  In 
the  higher  forms  the  vertebrae 
are  convex  at  one  end  and 
concave  at  the  other ;  but  in 
some  cases  the  vertebrae  are 
concave  at  both  ends. 

Batrachians  comprise  three 
orders,  —  Anoura  or  Tailless 
Batrachians,  Urodela  or  Tailed 
Batrachians,  and  Apoda  or  Cae- 
cilians.  Besides  these,  there 
is  a  group  of  extinct  batrachi- 
ans  called  Labyrinthodonts, 
from  the  peculiar  internal 
structure  of  their  teeth.  They 
have  scales,  and  are  first  found 
in  the  Carboniferous,  and  cul- 
minate and  end  in  the  Trias- 
sic  rocks.  Some  pf  the  species  were  very  large. 


Fig.  161. 


Fig.  163. 


Fig.  164. 


Fig.  163. 


Changes  in  the  form  of  a  Batrachian  — 
the  Frog  —  from  the  time  of  hatching. 


SUB-SECTION    I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  ANOURA,   OR  TAILLESS   BATRACHIANS. 

THE  Order  of  Anoura  comprises  batrachians  which 
have  the  body  short,  thick,  and  covered  with  a  skin  which 
does  not  adhere  to  the  muscles,  but  covers  them  loosely 
like  a  sack.  The  tongue  is  long,  and  fixed  to  the  front 
of  the  jaw,  and  its  tip  turned  backwards  in  the  mouth, 
whence  it  can  be  darted  forth  with  almost  lightning 
swiftness  ;  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  these  animals  secure 
the  living  insects  which  constitute  their  food.  The 
young  are  tadpoles  (Figs.  160—163),  which  have  a  large 
head,  short,  thick  body,  and  a  long  compressed  tail,  and 


3io  VERTEBRATES:  BATRACHIANS. 

feed  upon  vegetable  food.  As  they  grow  older,  the  ex- 
tremities appear,  the  taij  is  gradually  absorbed,  the  gills 
are  superseded  by  lungs,  and  the  animal  becomes  air- 
breathing  and  carnivorous.  This  Order  comprises  three 
families,  —  Ranidae  or  Frog  Family,  Hyloidae  or  Tree- 
Toad  Family,  and  Bufonidae  or  Toad  Family. 

RANID.E,  OR  FROG  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
tailless  batrachians  which  have  the  fingers  and  toes  free, 
and  never  dilated  into  a  disk,  tympanum  visible,  upper 
jaw  and  palate  provided  with  teeth,  and  the  throat  of  the 
males  with  vocal  vesicles,  whicli  communicate  internally 
with  the  mouth.  The  genera  and  species  are  numerous. 
The  Genus  Rana  comprises  the  Frogs  proper. 
The  Bull-frog,  R.  Catesbiana,  Shaw,  R.  pipiens,  Latr., 
of  the  United  States,  attains  a  total  length  of  twenty-one 
inches,  in  some  instances.  It  is  mainly  solitary,  and  is 
the  most  aquatic  of  all  the  frogs.  The  deep  croakings  of 
the  male  may  be  heard  a  mile.  R.  horiconensis,  Holbr., 
of  Lake  George,  is  a  closely  related  species. 

The  Green  Frog,./?,  clamitans,  ¥>osc.,R.fontanalis,  LeC, 
of  the  United  States,  is  three  and  a  half  inches  long, 
green  above,  with  dusky  spots  behind,  tinged  with  yellow 
below.  There  is  a  ridge  from  the  orbit  to  the  posterior 
extremities. 

Fig.  I66.  The  Leopard  Frog, 

R.  halecina,  Kalm,  of 
North  America,  is 
over  three  inches  long, 
green  above,  with 
spots  of  dark  brown 
margined  with  yel- 
low ;  beneath  yellow- 
ish white.  This  beau- 
tiful frog  is  very  ac- 

Leopard  Frog,  R.  halecina,  Kalm.  . .  , 

tive,    leaping     some- 
times eight  or  ten  feet  at  a  single  bound. 


ANOURA:  HYLOIM:.  311 

The  Pickerel-frog,  R.  palustris,  LeC.,  of  the  Northern 
States  and  southward,  is  two  and  three  quarters  inches 
long,  slender,  pale  brown  above,  marked  with  dark  brown 
square  spots ;  under  parts  yellowish  *hite ;  posterior 
half  of  the  thighs  bright  yellow  mottled  with  black.  Its 
flesh  is  delicate,  and  often  used  as  pickerel  bait.  Its  call 
is  a  singular  prolonged  grating  sound,  which  it  utters 
while  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

The  Wood-frog,  R.  sylvtttica,  LeC.,  of  the  Northern 
States  and  southward,  is  about  two  inches  long,  pale  red- 
dish brown  above,  yellowish  white  beneath,  head  with  a 
dark  brown  stripe  on  the  side.  It  is  found  in  woods,  and 
frequents  water  only  early  in  spring,  when  it  lays  its  eggs. 

The  Genus  Cystignathus  is  represented  by  C.  ornatus, 
Holbr.,  of  South  Carolina,  one  and  a  quarter  inches  long  ; 
and  C.  nigritus,  Holbr.,  of  Georgia  and  Carolina,  one  and 
a  half  inches  long. 

HYLOID.E,  OR  TREE-TOAD  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  frogs  which  have  the  extremities  of  the  toes 
and  fingers  enlarged  into  a  disk  or  viscous  pellet,  by 
means  of  which  they  sustain  themselves  on  the  sides  of 
trees,  branches,  leaves,  and  all  kinds  of  smooth  surfaces. 
They  inhabit  trees,  shrubs,  or  plants,  except  in  the  breed- 
ing season,  when  they  resort  to  the  water. 

The  Genus  Hyla  comprises  Tree-frogs  or  Tree-toads. 

The  Tree-toad,  H.  versicolor,  LeC.,  of  the  Northern  and 
Middle  States,  is  two  inches  long,  flattened,  warty  above, 
color  varying  from  palest  ash  to  dark  brown,  with  several 
large  irregular  blotches  of  brown.  The  under  surface  is 
mainly  white,  granulated.  It  is  very  noisy  towards  even- 
ing and  in  cloudy  weather,  or  before  a  rain.  In  the  latter 
part  of  spring  or  early  summer  it  resorts  to  the  pools  to 
lay  its  eggs. 

The  Green  Tree-frog,  H.  viridis,  Laurenti,  of  the  South- 
ern States,  is  one  and  three  quarters  inches  long.  Sev- 


312  VERTEBRATES:  BATRACHIANS. 

eral  additional  species,  from  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  length,  are  found  in  the  Southern  States. 
The  Genus  Hylodes  comprises  the  Cricket  Frogs. 
The  Savanna*  Cricket,  H.  gryllus,  Holbr.,  of  the  Atlan- 
tic and  Gulf  coast,  is  one  and  a  half  inches  long,  cinereous 
above,  vertebral  line  green  or  red,  and  the  sides  with 
three  oblong  black  spots,  edged  with  white  ;  under  parts 
silver  white.     It  is  found  -on  the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants, 
is  very  agile,  and  makes  long  leaps  to  secure  insects, 
which  constitute  its  food.     It  is  constantly  chirping  like 
a  cricket,  is  easily  domesticated,  and  sings  merrily  even 
in  confinement. 

Pickering's    Hylodes,    H.    Pickeringii, 
Holbr.,  of  New  England  and  the  Middle 
States,  is  less  than  one  inch  long,  body 
yellowish  brown,  with  small,  dusky  rhom- 
boidal  spots,  and  lines  of  the  same  color, 
Pickering's  Hylodes,  sometimes  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross ; 
H.pickeringa^^.  abdomen   pale  flesh-color,  throat   tinged 

with  yellow.  It  is  found  in  woods  upon  the  ground,  or 
upon  plants  growing  near  water.  In  the  spring-time,  its 
shrill,  piping  note  is  heard  throughout  the  night. 

BUFONID^E,  OR  TOAD  FAMILY. — This  Family  comprises 
batrachians  which  have  a  short,  thick  body,  warty  above 
and  granulated  beneath,  the  upper  jaw  and  palate  in  most 
cases  destitute  of  teeth.  They  are  mainly  nocturnal. 
They  confer  a  great  benefit  upon  the  farmer  and  gar- 
dener by  destroying  insects. 

The  Genus  Bufo  contains  the  Toads  proper,  about  half 
a  dozen  species  of  which  are  found  in  the  United  States. 

The  Carolina  Toad,  B.  lentiginosus,  Shaw,  of  the  South* 
ern  States,  is  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  with  a  large  head. 

The  Common  American  Toad,  B.  americanus,  LeC,  of 
the  United  States,  is  two  and  a  half  inches  long,  with 
large,  brilliant  eyes.  In  spring,  when  it  resorts  to  the 


URODELA:  SALAMANDRIM:.  313 

pools  to  lay  its  eggs,  its  prolonged  trill  is  heard  day  and 
night. 

B.  obstetricans,  Laur.,  of  Europe,  is  remarkable  for 
the  habit  the  male  has  of  fastening  the  eggs,  when  pro- 
duced by  the  female,  to  his  thighs,  by  means  of  some 
glutinous  threads,  and  carrying  them  about  until  near 
the  time  of  hatching,  when  he  seeks  a  pool  and  the  young 
escape  from  the  eggs. 

The  Genus  Scaphiophus  contains  the  Toad-frog,  S.  soli- 
taritts,  Holbr.,  from  New  England  to  Georgia,  which  is 
two  and  a  quarter  hiches  long,  olive  above,  with  two  yel- 
low lines  extending  from  the  eyes  to  the  hind  extremity ; 
yellowish  white  below.  The  eyes  are  very  large  and 
prominent,  pupil  black,  iris  golden,  and  subdivided  into 
four  parts  by  two  black  lines.  This  singular  animal  com- 
bines to  some  extent  the  characteristics  of  both  frog  and 
toad. 

SUB-SECTION   II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  URODELA,   OR  TAILED  BATRACHIANS. 

THE  Order  of  Urodela  comprises  batrachians  which 
have  a  tail  at  all  periods  of  life,  and  generally  four  feet. 
The  body  is  long,  round,  and  covered  with  skin  adherent 
to  the  muscles.  It  comprises  Salamandridae  or  Salaman- 
der Family,  Amphiumidae  or  Amphiuma  Family,  and  Si- 
renidae  or  Siren  Family. 

SALAMANDRID.E,  OR  SALAMANDER  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  Salamanders  proper  and  the  Tritons.  Its 
representatives  are  numerous.  More  than  twenty  species 
are  found  in  the  United  States,  from  two  and  a  half  to 
twelve  inches  long.  They  have  no  sternum,  ribs  rudimen- 
tary, legs  four,  fingers  four,  and  toes  five  in  most  genera ; 
and,  contrary  to  what  is  seen  in  frogs  and  toads,  the 
fore  feet  are  developed  before  the  hind  ones.  In  their 
adult  state,  most  Salamanders  proper  live  upon  the  land, 
14 


314  VERTEBRATES:  BATRACHIANS. 

approaching  the  water  only  at  the  season  in  which 
they  lay  their  eggs.  Some  are  terrestrial  throughout 
life,  laying  their  eggs  under  stones  and  old  logs  in 
damp  places.  The  Tritons  have  the  tail  compressed,  and 
are  entirely  aquatic ;  yet,  as  they  respire  by  means  of 
lungs,  they  come  to  the  surface  of  the  water  from  time  to 
time  for  atmospheric  air.  They  have  the  most  wonderful 
power  to  reproduce  mutilated  or  lost  parts.  The  limbs 
may  be  removed,  and  in  less  than  a  year  they  will  grow 
again  ;  and  the  new-formed  limbs  may  in  turn  be  ampu- 
tated, and  will  in  turn  be  replaced  by  others.  Even  the 
eye,  when  destroyed,  is  said  in  time  to  be  reproduced. 

The  Genus  Pseudotriton  contains  the  Red  Salamander, 
P.  ruber,  Tsch.,  of  the  Atlantic  States,  which  is  less  than 
five  inches  long,  red,  with  numerous  small,  black  points 
above  ;  and  Spelerpes,  the  Long-tailed  Salamander,  5.  lon- 
gicauda,  Baird,  of  the  Northern  United  States,  which  is  less 
than  six  inches  long,  lemon-colored,  marked  with  small 
spots  of  black.     The  tail  is  more  than  twice  the  length  of 
the  body,  and  marked  with  transverse  black  bands. 
The  Genus  Amblystoma  contains  A.  punctatum,  Baird, 
Fig.  168.  of  the  Northern  States 

and  southward,  which 
is  five  and  three  quar- 
ters inches  long,  blu- 
ish black  above,  with 

Salamander,  A .  punctatum,  Baird.  a   row    Qf   yeH0W    SpOtS 

on  each  side  ;  below  bluish  black. 

The  Genus  Plethodon  contains  the  Red-backed  Sala- 
mander, P.  erythronotus,  Baird,  of  the  Northeastern  and 
Middle  States,  which  is  less  than  three  inches  long,  with 
a  broad  vertebral  band  of  reddish-brown.  It  inhabits 
decayed  trees  and  other  damp  places,  and  lays  its  eggs,  in 
bunches  of  about  a  dozen,  in  moist,  decaying  wood  ;  and 
though  the  young  never  go  into  the  water,  they  are  still 


URODELA:  AMPHIUMIM:. 


315 


true  to  the  character  of  their  family,  and  have  gills  when 
first  hatched,  although  they  soon  disappear. 

The  Genus  Diemictylus  Fig.  169. 

contains  the  American 
Water -Newt,  D.  virides- 
cens,  Rafin.,  of  the  Atlan- 
tic States,  Which  is  about  Triton«  or  Water-Newt,  D.  mridescens,  Rafin. 

three  and  three  quarters  inches  long  ;  color  above  olive 
brown  tinged  with  green,  and  on  each  side  of  the  verte- 
bral line  there  is  a  row  of  bright  vermilion  circular  spots  ; 
below,  orange,  with  numerous  small  black  spots.  This 
species  is  almost  entirely  aquatic,  and  is  thus  a  Triton. 
Several  other  species  of  Triton  are  found  in  the  United 
States,  from  four  and  a  half  to  twelve  inches  long. 

AMPHIUMID^E,  OR  AMPHIUMA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  batrachians  which  are  said  to  be  destitute  of 
gills  at  all  periods  of  their  existence,  and  which  breathe 
by  means  of  exposed  spiracles  or  branchial  orifices  at  the 
sides  of  the  neck.  According  to  Holbrook,  they  undergo 
no  metamorphosis  after  they  are  hatched,  but  at  once  ap- 
pear in  the  forms  which  they  are  permanently  to  retain. 

The  Genus  Amphiuma  has  an  eel-shaped  body,  four 
imperfectly  developed  legs,  and  a  single  spiracle  on  each 
side  of  the  neck. 

The  Congo  Snake,  A.  means,  Lin- 
naeus, of  the  Southern  States,  is 
about  twenty-eight  inches  long,  blu- 
ish black.  1 1  lives  in  m  uddy  waters, 
or  in  mud,  sometimes  penetrating 
the  latter  to  the  depth  of  three  feet. 

The  Genus  Menopoma  has  a  large, 
flat  head,  short,  stout  body,  large 
tail,  a  single  spiracle  on  each  side ; 
legs  short  and  thick  ;  fingers  four, 
toes  five,  and  all  palmated.  a,,^  Snake>  A.  Mfafts>  i^ 


Fig.  170. 


316  VERTEBRATES:  BATRACHIANS. 

The  Hellbender,  M.  alleghaniensis,  Latr.,  of  the  Alle- 
ghany  River  and  westward,  is  fifteen  inches  long,  pale 
cinereous,  with  dusky  blotches.  It  lives  entirely  in  water, 
and  is  very  voracious,  feeding  on  fish,  shell-fish,  and  other 
small  animals. 

SIRENID^E,  OR  SIREN  FAMILY. — This  Family  comprises 
batrachians  which  have  permanent  external  branchiae  that 
occur  in  tufts,  covering  the  branchial  orifices.  They  also 
have  lungs  like  others  of  their  class,  and  are  thus  true 
amphibians.  It  will  be  observed  that,  even  in  their  adult 
state,  these  animals  represent  the  embryonic  forms  of  the 
higher  batrachians. 

The  Genus  Siren  has  an  eel-shaped  body,  with  anterior 
legs,  three  spiracles,  and  three  tufts  ;  no  posterior  legs. 

The  Siren,  or  Mud-Eel,  vS.  lacertina,  Linn.,  of  South 
Carolina,  attains  the  length  of  twenty-four  inches ;  color 
above  nearly  black,  with  numerous  light  spots ;  abdomen 
purplish.  It  lives  in  mud,  and  is  common  in  the  ditches 
of  rice-fields.  Two  more  species  are  found  in  the  South. 
The  Genus  Menobranchus  has  the  head  and  mouth 
large,  two  spiracles  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  and  these 
covered  with  three  branchial  tufts  ;  tail  compressed  ;  feet 
four,  and  four-toed. 

The    Menobranchus,   or    Mud-Puppy,   M.   mactdatus, 
Barnes,  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Champlain,  is  twelve  inches 
Fig.  171.  long*  dusky  cinere- 

ous-gray, with  dark- 
er spots ;  under  parts 
nearly  white.  It  gen- 
erally remains  at  the 
bottom  of  the  waters 
it  inhabits,  where 

Menobranchus,  M.  lateralis,  Sav 

it  swims  or  creeps 

slowly,  with  a  serpentine  motion.     It  is  often  taken  with 
the  hook,  and  fishermen  regard  it  as  poisonous.     M.  late- 


APODA.  317 

rails,  Say,  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi,  on  the 
eastern  side,  much  resembles  the  preceding. 

The  Genus  Siredon  contains  the  celebrated  Axolotl  of 
Mexico,  and  spe- 
cies very  closely     ^§1^  Fis- 172- 
related  from  other 
parts  of  Western 
North     America. 
Siredons  are  from 
six  to  ten  inches 

,  Siredon,  Western  North  America. 

long,    and    every 

way  similar  in  form  to  young  aquatic  salamanders.  They 
live  mainly  in  the  water.  The  Axolotl  is  eaten  by  the 
Mexicans.  Proteus,  represented  by  a  species  a  foot  long  in 
the  waters  of  Adelsberg  Cave,  Carniola,  is  a  related  genus. 


SUB-SECTION   III. 

THE 'ORDER  OF  APODA,   OR  OECILIANS. 

THE  Order  of  Apoda  comprises  snake-shaped  batra- 
chians.  They  are  destitute  of  limbs,  and  move  like  ser- 
pents. They  are  found  in  the  marshes  of  tropical  regions, 
and  are  named  Caecilians  on  account  of  their  exceedingly 
minute  eyes ;  and  these  members  are  also  apparently 
wanting  in  some  cases.  Length,  one  to  three  feet. 

Some  authors  recognize  and  place  here  a  group  called 
Lepidota.  Its  representatives  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of 
the  hot  parts  of  South  America  and  Africa,  and  are  known 
under  the  name  of  Lepidosiren.  They  are  one  to  three 
feet  long,  fish-like  in  form,  scaly,  and  with  simple  styliform 
legs.  During  the  dry  season  they  are  said  to  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud. 


318  VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 

SECTION  V. 

THE   CLASS    OF   FISHES. 

» 

THE  Class  of  Fishes  comprises  cool-blooded  vertebrates 
which  live  exclusively  in  water,  and  whose  respiration  is 
effected  in  that  medium  by  means  of  gills.  Though  living 
in  a  liquid  of  nearly  the  same  specific  gravity  as  them- 
selves, they  are  adapted,  by  their  whole  structure,  for 
easy  motion,  and  for  the  most  rapid  progression.  The 
limbs  corresponding  to  the  locomotive  members  of  higher 
vertebrates  are  comparatively  little  developed,  and  are 
called  fins.  The  parts  corresponding  to  arms  and  legs 
are  extremely  short,  or  entirely  concealed.  The  parts 
corresponding  to  fingers  and  toes  are  called  rays,  and 
serve  as  supports  to  the  membranous  parts  of  the  fins. 
Those  fins  which  correspond  to  the  anterior  locomotive 
members  of  higher  vertebrates  are  called  pectorals,  and 
those  which  correspond  to  the  posterior,  ventrals.  Be- 
sides the  pectorals  and  ventrals,  there  are  other  fins  which 
are  vertical.  Those  upon  the  back  are  called  dorsal, 

Fig.  173. 


p 

P,  pectorals ;  v,  ventrals;  d,  dorsal ;  a,  anal ;  c,  caudal. 

those  beneath  the  tail  anal,  and  the  fin  at  the  end  of  the 
tail  caudal.  Most  of  this  class  are  scaly,  but  some  are 
naked,  others  spinous,  and  others  still  are  mailed.  The 
head  of  Fishes  varies  much  in  form,  and  consists  of  a 
greater  number  of  bones  than  are  found  in  other  ovipa- 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  319 

rous  vertebrates,  if  we  consider  every  piece  a  distinct  bone. 
The  jaws  are  armed  with  teeth,  and  in  many  cases  these 
are  placed  in  all  parts  of  the  mouth,  and  even  in  the  gul- 
let. The  spinal  column  is  made  up  of  vertebrae  which 
are  concave  at  each  end,  and  the  cavities  which  thus 
occur  between  the  vertebras  are  filled  by  a  soft  membra- 
nous and  gelatinous  substance,  which  extends  from  one 
cavity  to  another,  through  a  hole  with  which  each  verte- 
bra is  pierced.  The  spinal  column  bends  with  perfect 
freedom  laterally,  but  not  in  a  vertical  direction ;  and  it 
is  chiefly  by  the  lateral  motions  of  the  tail  and  body  that 
Fishes  are  propelled  ;  although  some  swim  principally  by 
the  undulation  of  the  dorsal  fin.  The  fins  are  employed 
mainly  in  balancing  and  directing.  The  muscular  sys- 
tem is  highly  developed.  Their  flesh,  except  certain 
muscles  which  are  deep  red,  is  paler  than  that  of  Birds  or 
Mammals,  and  in  some  cases  is  pure  white.  One  large 
and  complicated  muscle  on  each  side,  and  filling  up  the 
space  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  furnishes  the  principal 
motive  power.  The  brain  is  exceedingly  small,  and  sel- 
dom fills  the  cavity  in  which  it  is  situated.  The  senses 
of  smell,  sight,  and  hearing  are  conferred  on  Fishes  by 
organs  analogous  to  those  of  other  vertebrates,  and  are 
arranged  in  nearly  a  similar  manner.  The  nostrils  are 
simple  cavities  at  the  end  of  the  muzzle,  almost  always 
perforated  by  two  holes.  The  position,  direction,  and 
size  of  the  eye  in  Fishes  are  almost  endlessly  varied. 
With  few  exceptions,  the  eye  has  no  motion ;  the  iris 
neither  contracts  nor  dilates,  and  the  pupil  is  never  al- 
tered, whatever  be  the  quantity  of  light.  The  ear  of 
Fishes  is  enclosed  on  every  side  in  the  bones  of  the  head, 
and  consists  merely  of  a  sac,  representing  the  vestibule, 
and  of  three  membranous  semicircular  canals.  In  the 
former  are  suspended  small  bodies,  generally  of  stony 
hardness.  All  the  vibrations  which  reach  the*  ear  of 


32O  VERTEBRATES  I    FISHES. 

Fishes  come  through  the  hard  covering  of  the  head ; 
hence  they  hear  scarcely  more  than  the  loudest  sounds.* 
The  taste  is  generally  regarded  as  feeble  ;  f  nor  are  they 
highly  endowed  with  the  sense  of  touch.  The  vegeta- 
tive functions  of  Fishes  follow  the  same  order  as  those 
of  higher  vertebrates.  Respiration,  as  stated  above,  is 
performed  by  means  of  branchiae  or  gills,  an  apparatus 
on  each  side  of  the  neck  consisting  of  fringes  suspended 
on  arches  attached  to  the  hyoid  bone,  and  traversed  by 
innumerable  bloodvessels.  In  most  species,  the  great 
opening  of  the  gills  is  closed  by  means  of  the  bran- 
chial membrane,  which  is  supported  by  rays  attached 
to  the  hyoid  bone,  together  with  a  sort  of  lid  composed 
of  three  pieces,  plainly  or  obscurely  indicated,  and  called 
Fi  i  the  operculum,  suboperculum,  and 

interoperculum.  This  lid  or  gill- 
cover  is  articulated  with  the  tym- 
panal  bone,  and  plays  on  one  called 
the  preoperculum.  The  general 
relative  positions  of  these  parts 
is  shown  in  Fig.  174.  In  some 
groups,  however,  the  gill-covers 

t,  preoperculum  ;  o,  operculum  ;  .  . 

*,  subopercuium ;  /,  inter-        are  wanting.     By  motion  of  their 

operculum. 


oidean  apparatus,  Fishes  keep  currents  of  water  flowing 
through  their  gills,  where  the  blood  which  is  continually 
sent  from  the  heart  is  purified.  The  blood,  having  under- 
gone respiration,  is  poured  into  an  arterial  trunk  situated 
under  the  spine,  whence  it  is  distributed  to  every  part  of 
the  body,  and  in  due  time  returns  by  the  veins  to  the 
heart.  The  heart  of  Fishes  contains  but  two  cavities, 

*  Some  naturalists  believe  that  the  sense  of  hearing  is  much  less  obtuse 
than  it  is  here  represented  to  be. 

t  It  is  well  known  that  some  fishes  show  a  decided  preference  for  one 
kind  of  bait  over  another,  not  only  in  taking  it,  but  in  clinging  to  it. 


GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS.  321 

corresponding  to  the  right  auricle  and  ventricle  of  the 
warm-blooded  vertebrates.  The  process  of  respiration 
now  described  is  as  indispensable  to  Fishes  as  the 
respiration  of  air  to  other  animals  ;  and  they  exhibit  the 
same  symptoms  of  distress  when  it  is  stopped,  and  rap- 
idly perish.  Still,  it  is  not  by  itself,  nor  by  the  oxygen 
which  enters  into  its  chemical  composition,  that  the  water 
acts  upon  the  blood.  It  is  only  the  small  quantity  of  air 
that  is  mixed  with  the  water  which  serves  for  the  respira- 
tion of  these  animals,  and  if  they  be  put  in  water  which 
has  been  deprived  of  air,  they  immediately  die.  It  is 
sometimes  necessary  for  them  to  come  to  the  surface  for 
atmospheric  air,  when  the  supply  of  that  substance  has 
become  deficient  in  the  water  in  which  they  live. 

Most  fishes  are  furnished  with  a  membranous  bag 
filled  with  air,  and  called  the  swimming-bladder.  This 
organ  is  probably  a  rudimentary  lung,  but  its  true  func- 
tion is  not  known  ;  although  some  believe  that  by  it 
Fishes  have  the  power  of  varying  their  specific  gravity, 
and  thus  more  easily  rising  and  descending.  Others  be- 
lieve it  aids  in  hearing,  as  there  is  a  connection  between 
it  and  the  chamber  of  the  ear. 

Fishes  in  general  are  characterized  by  great  voracity. 
They  feed  mainly  upon  smaller  members  of  their  class, 
and  other  small  animals ;  although  some  are  vegetable 
feeders.  Most  of  them  swallow  their  prey  whole.  Some, 
which  feed  on  shell-fish,  crush  their  food  by  means  of  the 
powerful  crushing  and  grinding  teeth,  in  the  gullet. 

Most  fishes  are  oviparous  in  their  manner  of  reproduc- 
tion ;  but  some  species  bring  forth  living  young.  They 
produce  a  far  greater  number  of  eggs  than  any  other 
vertebrates.*  Some  species  prepare  a  place  for  their 

*  A  Salmon  sometimes  contains  as  many  as  20,000  eggs  ;  a  Perch,  28,320 ; 
a  Herring,  36,960;  a  Mackerel,  546,000;  a  Flounder,  1,357,400;  a  Stur- 
geon, 7,635,200;  a  Cod,  9,344,000;  and  a  species  of  Upeneus,  13,000,000! 
14*  u 


322  VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 

eggs,  and  defend  them  with  great  spirit ;  but  most 
abandon  them  as  soon  as  laid.  With  few  exceptions, 
Fishes  have  no  care  of  their  young,  but  devour  them 
as  readily  as  they  do  any  other  food.  In  the  Sygna- 
thi,  or  Pipe-Fishes,  the  eggs  are  conveyed  into  a  pouch 
under  the  abdomen  or  at  the  base  of  the  tail  of  the  male, 
where  they  are  hatched. 

Although  the  lowest  class  of  the  Vertebrates,  their 
varied  forms,  and  colors  which  often  rival  those  of  pre- 
cious stones  and  burnished  gold,  the  wonderful  power 
and  velocity  of  some,  the  wholesome  food  furnished  by 
many,  and  the  exciting  sport  of  their  capture,  combine 
to  render  Fishes  subjects  of  great  interest  to  the  casual 
observer,  as  well  as  to  the  amateur  and  the  professional 
naturalist. 

The  number  of  known  species  of  Fishes  is  about  ten 
thousand.  According  to  the  earlier  writings  of  Agassiz, 
they  are  divided  into  four  orders,  the  scales  being  taken 
as  the  basis'  of  classification,  as  follows :  —  Ctenoids,  em- 
bracing fishes  which  have  the  scales  toothed  on  the  edge, 
as  Perch,  Breams,  Bass,  and  the  like ;  Cycloids,  comprising 
fishes  whose  scales  are  rounded  and  smooth  on  the  edge, 
as  Salmon  and  Cod  ;  Ganoids,  embracing  fishes  with  en- 
amelled scales,  as  the  Gar-pike  ;  and  Placoids,  fishes  with 
fine  point-like  or  stellate  scales,  as  Sharks  and  Skates. 

Cuvier  divides  fishes  into  two  great  groups,  —  Bony 
and  Cartilaginous  Fishes, — which  together  include  nine 
orders  ;  and  since  so  many  of  the  books  upon  natural 
history  to  which*  the  student  may  have  occasion  to 
refer  follow  him  more  or  less  closely,  and  as  there  is 
no  generally  accepted  classification  of  this  important 
group  of  animals,  I  have  thought  it  best  to  adhere 
mainly  to  his  arrangement. 

Bony  Fishes,  or  Fishes  proper,  are  those  with  a  true 
bony  skeleton,  and  include  six  orders,  as  follows  :  — 


CUVIERS    ORDERS. 


323 


Acanthopterygians,  or  Spine-firmed  Fishes,  as  Perch, 
Breams,  Bass,  Mackerel,  and  the  like  ; 


Fig.  175- 


Fig.  176. 


-«"*^ 

M?  *'$" 

Bream. 


Fig.  177. 


Abdominal  Malacopterygians,  or  Soft-finned  Fishes 
with  the  ventrals  behind  the  pectorals,  as  Salmon,  Pike 
and  Pickerel,  Trout,  Carp,  Herring,  and  their  allies ; 


Fig.  178. 


Fig.  179. 


Trout. 


Pickerel. 


Fig.  1 80. 


Salmon. 


Sub-brachian  Malacopterygians,  or  Soft-finned  Fishes 


324 


VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 


with  the  ventrals  under  or  forward  of  the  pectorals,  as 
Cod,  Haddock,  and  their  allies  ; 

Fig.  z8i. 


Cod. 


Apodal  Malacopterygians,  or  Soft-finned  Fishes  with- 
out ventrals,  as  Eels  ; 

Fig.  182.  Fig.  183. 


Eel. 


Sea-Horse. 


Fig.  184. 


Pipe-Fish. 

Lophobranchiates,  or  Fishes  with  the  gills  in  tufts,  as 
Pipe-Fishes  and  Sea-Horses  ;  and 

Plectognathes,  or  Fishes  which  have  the  maxillary  bones 
united  to  the  intermaxillary,  as  the  Puffers,  Sun-Fishes, 
File-Fishes,  and  Trunk-Fishes. 

Fig.  185. 

Fig .  1 86. 


Trunk-Fish! 


Puffer. 


Cartilaginous  Fishes   have   their   skeleton  essentially 
cartilaginous,  calcareous  matter  being   present   only  in 


CUVIER'S  ORDERS. 


325 


small  portions.  They  have  no  sutures  in  the  cranium, 
and  the  gelatinous  substance  which  in  other  Fishes  fills 
the  spaces  between  the  vertebrae,  and  only  extends  from 
one  space  to  another  by  means  of  a  small  aperture,  forms 
in  part  of  this  group  a  long  cord  which  traverses  nearly 
all  the  vertebrae  without  materially  varying  in  its  diam- 
eter. This  group  includes  three  orders :  — 

Sturiones,    or   chondropterygians   with    free  gills,   as 
Sturgeons  ; 

Fig.  187. 


Sturgeon. 


Selachians,  or  chondropterygians  with  fixed  gills,  as 
Sharks  and  Skates  ;  and 

Fig.  188. 


Skate. 


326  VERTEBRATES  :    FISHES. 

Cyclostomes,  or  Suckers, 
chondropterygians  with  skel- 
eton very  slightly  developed, 
and  the  body  terminated  be- 
fore  with  a  circular  or  semi- 
circular lip.  Such  are  the  Lampreys. 

SUB-SECTION    I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  ACANTHOPTERYGIANS,  OR  SPINE-FINNED   FISHES. 

THIS  Order,  the  most  extensive  of  the  Class  of  Fishes, 
is  at  once  recognized  by  the  spines  which  occupy  the 
place  of  the  first  rays  of  the  dorsal,  or  which  alone  sup- 
port the  first  fin  of  the  back  whenever  there  are  two 
dorsals.  In  some  cases,  instead  of  a  first  dorsal,  there  are 
only  a  few  free  spines.  The  first  rays  of  the  anal  fin  are 
also  spines,  and  there  is  generally  one  spine  to  each  ventral. 

PERCID/E,  OR  PERCH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
the  Perch  and  its  immediate  allies,  embracing  about  six 
hundred  species,  distributed  among  fifty  or  sixty  genera. 
About  one  fifth  of  these  inhabit  fresh  water,  and  the  oth- 
ers are  marine.  Some  are  remarkably  beautiful.  The 
flesh  of  all  is  wholesome,  and  that  of  many  is  highly 
prized,  and  much  used  for  food. 

The  Genus  Perca  —  Perches  proper  —  has  a  dentated 
preoperculum*  bony  operculum  terminated  by  two  or 
three  sharp  points,  and  a  smooth  tongue. 

The  American  Yellow  Perch,  P.  flavescens,  Cuv.,  is 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  greenish  and  golden 
Fig-  ^  above,  the  sides  golden  yellow,  with 

six  to  eight  dark  vertical  bands, 
which  extend  over  the  back  ;  the 
pectorals,  ventrals,  and  anal  orange. 
Yellow  Perch,  p.jiavescens,  GUV.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common 
and  best  known  of  the  fresh-water  fishes  of  the  United 
States. 


ACANTHOPTERYGIANS  :    PERCID^.  327 

The  Genus  Labrax  —  Bass  —  is  distinguished  from 
Perca  by  scaly  opercula  terminating  in  two  spines,  and 
by  a  rough  tongue. 

The  Striped  Bass,  L.  lineatus,  Cuv.,  is  from  one  to  four 
feet  long,  brown  above,  silvery  beneath,  and  with  from 
seven  to  nine  blackish  longitudinal  stripes  on  each  side  of 

Fig.  192. 


Striped  Bass,  L.  lirteatus,  Cuv. 

the  body.  This  is  a  salt-water  fish,  which  keeps  near 
the  land,  ascending  fresh-water  streams  in  the  spring  to 
breed.  It  is  very  common  on  the  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land. It  readily  bites  the  hook,  and  is  taken  in  large 
quantities  with  the  seine.  Some  specimens  weigh  sev- 
enty-five pounds  each. 

The  White  Perch,  or  Ruddy  Bass,  L.  ntfus,  Dekay, 
Eastern  North  America,  is  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  long, 
and  is  highly  prized  for  food.  It  is  most  common  in 
waters  which  are  in  easy  communication  with  the  sea. 

The  Genus  Lucioperca  adds  to  the  characteristics  of  the 
Perch  those  of  the  Pike. 

The  Yellow  Pike-Perch,  L.  americana,  Dekay,  of  the 
North  American  Great  Lakes  and  adjacent  regions,  is 
from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long,  cylindrical  and  ta- 
pering, and  is  popularly  known  as  the  Common  Pike, 
Glass-Eye,  and  Yellow  Pike. 

The  Genus  Centropristes  has  the  teeth  small  and  crowd- 
ed, preoperculum  dentated,  and  the  operculum  spinous. 

The  Black  Sea-Bass,  or  Black-Fish,  C.  nigricans,  C.  &  V., 


328  VERTEBRATES  I    FISHES. 

of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  is  from  six  to 
twelve  inches  long,  bluish  black,  dorsal  fin  mottled  with 
white,  and  the  caudal,  when  perfect,  divided  into  three 
lobes.  Its  flesh  is  highly  prized  for  food.  It  is  abundant 
in  the  markets  from  May  to  July. 

The  Genus  Pomotis  —  Breams — is  characterized  by  an 
oval,  much-compressed   body,  and  a  membranous   pro- 
longation at  the  angle  of  the  operculum.     There  are  sev- 
eral species,  all  of  which  inhabit  fresh  water,  and  all  are 
American.     They  make  circular  cavities  in  the  sand  for 
nests,  often  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  six  inches  deep, 
where  they  lay  their  eggs  and  courageously  defend  them. 
The  Common  Pond-fish,  Bream,  or  Pumpkin-seed,  P. 
Fig.  i93.  vulgaris,  authors,  is  from  five  to  eight 

inches  long,  greenish  olive,  and  with 
numerous  reddish  spots  scattered  over 
the  body,  and  with  the  appendix  of 
the  operculum  black,  bordered  behind 

Bream,  P.  vulgarh,  Cuv.      w^ft   scarlet. 

The  Genus  Uranoscopus  —  Star-gazers  —  has  the  eyes 
so  placed  that  they  appear  constantly  looking   at   the 
Fig.  i94.  heavens,  the  mouth  cleft  vertically,  a 

stout  spine  at  each  shoulder,  and  in 
the   mouth   and  before  the  tongue  a 
long  filament  which  can  be  protrud- 
r,  u.  anotios,      ed  at  will,  and  which  serves,  it  is  said, 

Cuv.  &Val.  u     o    ,  ,   .,        . 

to  attract  small  fish,  while  its  owner 
remains  concealed  in  the  mud.  Star-gazers  inhabit  the 
Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  One  species,  U.  anoplos, 
Cuv.  &  Val.,  two  inches  or  more  in  length,  is  found  on  the 
southeastern  coast  of  the  United  States. 

TRIGLIM,  OR  MAILED  CHEEK  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
embraces  spine-rayed  fishes,  which  have  the  head  vari- 
ously mailed.  About  thirty  genera  have  been  described. 

The  Genus  Trigla  —  Gurnards  —  is  characterized  by 


ACANTHOPTERYGIANS  : 

nearly  a  square  head,  and  dense  t\ 
before  the  vomer.     The  species  are1 
rine. 

The  Red  Gurnard,  T.  ciiculus,  Linn.,  of  the  Atlantic,  is 
from  eight  to  ten  inches  long,  and  of  a  red  color. 

The  Genus  Prionotus  has  very  large  pectorals,  and  a 
belt  of  dense  teeth  on  the  palatines. 

The  Sea  Robin,  or  Grunter,  P.  lineatus,  Dekay,  is  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  Fig.  i9S. 

long,  color  dark -brown 
above,  sides  and  abdo- 
men cream-colored ;  and 
there  is  a  broad,  reddish 
stripe  below  the  lateral 

1  \r\Q  Sea  Robin,  P.  lineatus,  Dekay. 

The  Web-fingered  Gurnard,  P.  palmipes,  Storer,  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  long,  with  the 
pectoral  processes  dilated  at  their  extremities. 

The  Genus  Dactylopterus  is  characterized  by  pectoral 
fins,  which  are  excessively  developed,  and  composed  of 
two  parts,  forming  a  large  fin,  which,  like  a  wing,  sup- 
ports the  fish*  in  the  air  for  a  short  time.  ^ 

The  Sea-Swallow,  D.  volitans,  Cuv.,  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  America,  is  six  to  fourteen  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Uranidea  has  the  head  much  depressed, 
second  dorsal  higher  than  the  first,  and  only  one  small 
spine  at  the  angle  of  the  preoperculum.  The  species 
inhabit  fresh  water. 

The  River  Bull-head,  or  Miller's  Thumb,  U.  gracilis, 
Putnam,  of  the  Northern  States,,  is  only  two  or  three 
inches  long. 

The  Genus  Coitus  has  spines  upon  each  of  the  oper- 
cular  bones,  and  the  head  armed  with  spines.  The  spe- 
cies are  marine. 

The  Greenland  Sculpin,  C.  grcenlandicus,  C.  &  V.,  of 


330 


VERTEBRATES  I   FISHES. 


Fig.  196. 


Greenland  Sculpin,  C.  grcenlandicus, 
Cuv.  &  Val. 


the  North  Atlantic,  is  about 
twelve  inches  long,  dark 
brown  above,  with  clay- 
colored  blotches  ;  abdomen 
with  yellowish  and  white 
spots.  Four  tubercles  on 
the  top  of  the  head  enclose 
a  quadrangular  area. 

The  Common  Sculpin,  C.  octodecimspinosus,  Mitch.,  of 
the  North  Atlantic,  is  about  twelve  inches  long,  light 
brown  above,  with  darker  blotches  ;  white  below.  When 
first  taken  from  the  water,  its  head  is  excessively  ex- 
panded, its  spines  and  fins  erect,  and  it  makes  a  croaking 
noise.  The  head  is  slenderer  than  in  C.  grcenlandicus. 

The  Genus  Boleosoma  has  the  body  in  the  form  of  a 
dart,  and  the  head  very  short  and  rounded. 

The  Tessellated  Darter,  B.  Olm- 
stedi,  Ag.,  of  the  small  streams  of  the 
Northeastern  States,  is  about  three 
inches  long. 

The  Genus  Hemitriptenis  has  the 
first  dorsal  deeply  emarginate,  thus  making  'the  two  dor- 
sals look  like  three  ;  head  bristly  and  spinous,  and  with 
cutaneous  appendages. 

The  Sea-Raven,  or  Deep-water  Sculpin,  H.  acadianus, 

Storer,  of  the  North  At- 
lantic, is  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  inches  long, 
with  the  color  exceed- 
ingly variable  ;  often  yel- 
low, or  blood-red  varied 


Fig.  197. 


Darter,  B.  Olmstedi,  Ag. 


Fig.  i 


with  brown. 


Sea-Raven,  H.  acadianus,  Storer. 


has  the  head  mailed,  roughened,  compressed,  scaly,  and 
a  single  dorsal  ;  head  and  body  with  fleshy  appendages. 


ACANTHOPTERYGIANS  :    SCIENID.E.  331 

The  Sea-Scorpion,  5.  porctis,  Linn.,  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Mediterranean,  is  from  eight  to  ten  inches  long,  color 
brown,  rosaceous  beneath.  Wounds  from  its  spines  are 
considered  dangerous. 

The  Spotted  Sea-Scorpion,  or  Sea-Toad,  5.  bufo,  Rich., 
of  the  Atlantic,  is  about  seven-  inches  long,  brown,  mar- 
bled with  rosaceous  and  violet. 

The  Genus  Sebastes  differs  from  the  preceding  one  in 
the  more  compressed  form,  the  absence  of  cutaneous  ap- 
pendages, and  in  the  smoother  head. > 

The  Norway  Haddock,  5.  norvegicus,  Cuv.,  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  is  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  red 
above  and  silvery  below. 

The  Genus  Gasterosteus  —  Sticklebacks  —  has  mailed 
cheeks,  one  dorsal  fin,  with  free  spines  before  it,  and  the 
bones  of  the  pelvis  united,  forming  a  Fig  igg_ 

shield  pointed  behind  ;  and  their  ventrals 
are  reduced  to  a  single  spine.  The  spe- 
cies are  quite  numerous,  very  small,  from  Many-siged  stidde- 
one  to  two  inches  and  a  half  long.  They 
inhabit  the  ocean  and  fresh-water  streams,  and  are  very 
active,  pugnacious,  and  voracious.  A  single  individual 
has  been  known  to  devour  seventy-five  young  fish  in  five 
hours.  They  construct  nests,  which  are  protected  by  the 
female  fish. 

SCIENID^:,  OR  SCIENOID  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises fishes  which  are  closely  related  to  the  Percidae  ;  the 
bones  of  the  cranium  and  face  are  generally  cavernous, 
muzzle  more  or  less  gibbous,  and  vertical  fins  somewhat 
scaly.  The  species  are  very  numerous,  inhabiting  mainly 
the  tropical  seas.  Cuvier  enumerates  over  thirty  genera, 
and  the  species  known  are  more  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty. 

The  Genus  Otolithus  is  characterized  by  feeble. or  ob- 
solete anal  spines,  two  dorsals,  and  the  air-bladder  bifid  in 


332  VERTEBRATES  I    FISHES. 

front.  The  Squeteague,  or 
Weak-Fish,  O.  regalis,  Cuv. 
&  Val,  of  the  Atlantic,  is 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four 
inches  long,  bluish  above, 

Weak-Fish,  O.  recalls,  Cuv.  &  Val.  ^^  with  ^^  .    yentrals 

and  anals  orange. 

The  Genus  Amblodon  has  the  lower  pharyngeals  sol- 
dered together,  and  covered  with  thick,  heavy,  pavement- 
like  crushing-teeth,  arranged  in  regular  rows,  and  opposed 
by  the  same  kind  of  teeth  in  the  upper  pharyngeals. 

The  Lake  Sheepshead,  A.  grunniens,  Rafin.,  of  the 
Northern  and  Western  lakes,  is  from  twelve  to  thirty-six 
inches  long,  silvery  above,  grayish-white  below. 

The  Genus  Umbrina  is  characterized  by  a  single  cirrus 
on  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  species  are  marine. 

The  King-Fish,  U.  nebulosa,  Storer,  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States,  is  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches  long,  the  color  dark  gray,  with  transverse  dusky 
bars  and  bands. 

SPARID.E,  OR  PORGEE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises spine-rayed  fishes  which  have  no  teeth  in  the  pal- 
ate, no  spines  or  teeth  on  the  opercular  bones,  the  muzzle 
not  gibbous,  and  the  bones  of  the  head  not  cavernous. 
The  genera  are  thirteen,  species  nearly  two  hundred. 

The  Genus  Sargus  has  trenchant  incisors  in  front,  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  man. 

The  Sheepshead,  5.  ovis,  Cuv.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
the  United  States,  is  from  twelve  to  thirty-six  inches  long, 
with  the  tail  abruptly  diminished  from  the  body';  color 
dull  silvery  on  the  sides,  brassy  on  the  back,  with  dark 
transverse  bands.  Its  flesh  is  very  highly  prized. 

The  Genus  Pagrus  has  from  four  to  six  stout  conical 
teeth  in  the  front  of  each  jaw,  and  two  series  of  round 
teeth  on  the  sides. 


ACANTHOPTERYGIANS  :    CH^TODONTID^E.  333 

The  Scupaug,  Scup,  or  Big  Porgee,  P.  argyrops,  Cuv.,  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  Fig.  20I. 

States,  is  from  eight  to  twelve 
inches  long,  with  a  short  recum- 
bent spine  in  front  of  the  dorsal 
fin,  and  the  sides  with  brilliant 
metallic  reflections. 

CILETODONTID^E,  OR  CHUETO-  Scupaug,  P.  argyr<>ps,  Cuv. 
DON  FAMILY. — This  Family  comprises  spine-rayed  fishes 
which  have  the  body  compressed  and  scaly,  and  the  dor- 
sal and  anal  fins  scaly.  The  Chsetodons  are  so  named 
from  their  teeth,  which  resemble  bristles  collected  in  rows 
like  those  of  a  brush.  Their  mouth  is  small,  and  colors 
brilliant.  They  abound  in  the  hot  seas.  Eighteen  gen- 
era and  one  hundred  and  fifty  species  are  enumerated. 

The  Genus  Chatodon  contains  C.  rostratus,  Bl.,  of  Java, 
which  has  the  faculty  of  spirting  drops  of  water  so  as  to 
hit  insects  on  the  plants  near  by,  and  bring  them  down 
so  that  it  can  secure  them  for  food. 

The  Genus  Ephippus  contains  those  known  as  Horse- 
men. They  have  a  dorsal  deeply  emarginate  between 
the  spinous  and  soft  rays ;  and  the  spinous  part  can  be 
folded  into  a  groove  formed  by  the  scales  of  the  back. 

The  Banded  Ephippus,  E.  faber,  Cuv.  &  Val.,  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  from  five  to  eighteen  inches  long,  brownish, 
with  six  broad,  vertical  dusky-bluish  bands. 

The  Genus  Pimelepterus  has  the  fins  much  thickened 
by  the  scales  which  cover  them.  It  contains  the  Razor- 
Fish,  P.  Boscii,  Cuv.  &  Val.,  of  the  Atlantic,  near  the 
Southern  coast.  It  is  six  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Toxotes  contains  the  Archer,  T.  jaculator, 
Cuv.,  of  Java,  celebrated  for  the  same  faculty  which  dis- 
tinguishes C.  rostratus,  that  of  spirting  drops  of  water  so 
as  to  bring  down  insects  from  the  plants  above  itr  forcing 
water  three  or  four  feet,  and  rarely  missing  its  aim. 


334  VERTEBRATES  :    FISHES. 

SCOMBRIM:,  OR  MACKEREL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  fishes  with  a  smooth  body  and  small  scales,  and 
whose  tail  and  caudal  fin  are  extremely  powerful.  Over 
fifty  genera  and  more  than  four  hundred  species  are  known, 
many  of  which  are  of  the  highest  utility  to  man. 

The  Genus  Scomber — Mackerels  proper  —  is  charac- 
terized by  a  fusiform  body,  two  dorsals  widely  separated, 
finlets  behind  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  and  two  cutaneous 
crests  on  the  sides  of  the  tail. 

The   Mackerel,    S.   vernalis,    Mitch.,  of  the  Atlantic, 
is  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  long,  dark  steel-blue 
above,  becoming  lighter  on  the  sides,  and  with  twenty-four 
Fig.  202.  to  thirty  vertical  deep- 

blue  half  bands ;  be- 
neath silvery,  with  me- 
tallic reflections.  This 
species  appears  on  the 

Mackerel,  S.  vernalis,  Mitch.  CQast  Qf    N£W   England 

in  the  spring  and  summer,  sometimes  in  the  most  aston- 
ishing numbers.  Dr.  Storer  states  that  in  1837  Mas- 
sachusetts fishermen  caught  over  two  hundred  thousand 
barrels  of  this  Mackerel. 

The  Spanish  Mackerel,  5.  Dekayi,  Storer,  of  the  At- 
lantic, is  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  light- 
green  above,  with  numerous  undulating  darker  green 
lines  ;  lower,  dull  bluish,  with  grayish-brown  spots  on  the 
sides  ;  and  the  abdomen  light,  with  metallic  reflections. 

The  Genus  Thynnus  has  a  corselet  around  the  thorax, 
formed  of  larger  scales  than  those  of  the  rest  of  the  body, 
a  long  and  elevated  crest  on  each  side  of  the  tail,  and  the 
front  dorsal  reaching  nearly  to  the  hind  one. 

The  American  Tunny,  or  Horse-Mackerel,  T.  secundo- 
dorsalis,  Storer,  is  from  nine  to  twelve  feet  long,  and  at- 
tains a  weight  of  a  thousand  pounds. 

The  Genus  Pelamys  has   separate,  stout,  and   acute 


ACANTHOPTERYGIANS  I    SCOMBERIDjE. 


335 


teeth.  It  contains  the  Skip-Jack,  or  Striped  Bonito,  P. 
sarda,  Cuv.,  of  the  Atlantic,  which  is  from  twelve  -to 
twenty  inches  long,  dark  plumbeous  above,  abdomen 
silvery  white,  with  six  or  more  parallel,  longitudinal, 
somewhat  oblique  dark  stripes  on  the  body  and  sides. 

The  Genus  Xiphias  —  Sword-Fishes  —  has  a  very  long 
beak,  or  sword-like  upper  jaw.     The  Common  Sword- 
Fig.  203. 


Sword-Fish,  X.  gladius,  Linn. 

Fish,  X.  gladius,  Linn.,  of  the  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean, is  from  ten  to  sixteen  feet  long.  It  attacks  the 
largest  animals  of  the  sea,  and  swims  with  astonishing 
swiftness. 

The  Genus  Naticrates  —  Pilot-Fishes  —  has  a  fusiform 
body,   free    dorsal    spines,   a  Fig.  204. 

crest  on  the  sides  of  the  tail, 
and  two  free  spines  before  the 
anal  fin  ;  species  ma/ine. 

The  Genus  Temnodon  has 
the  first  dorsal  in  a  furrow,  teeth  on  the  outer  row  sep- 
arate, flat,  and  lancet-shaped ;  inner  series  crowded,  and 
the  teeth  dense  upon  the  vomer,  palatines,  and  tongue. 
The  Blue-Fish,  T. 
saltator,  Cuv.,  of  al- 
most all  seas,  is  about 
eighteen  inches  long, 
•bluish  above,  lighter 
below.  It  is  prized 
for  food. 


Pilot-Fish,  N.  noveboracensis,  C.  &  Val. 


Blue-Fish,  T.  saltator,  Cuv. 


336 


VERTEBRATES  I    FISHES. 


The  Genus  Caranx  has  a  lateral  line  more  or  less  mailed 
with  scaly  plates,  carinated,  and  frequently  spinous.  It 
contains  the  Yellow  Mackerel,  C.  chrysos,  Cuv.,  which  is 
from  six  to  eight  inches  long,  and  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United  States. 

The  Genus  Vomer\\2^  the  body  deep,  much  compressed, 
and  the  profile  nearly  vertical.     The  Blunt-nosed  Shiner, 
V.  Brownii,  Cuv.  &  Val.,  of  the  tropics, 
and  northward  to  New  York,  is  about 
eight  inches  long  ;  color  lustrous  silvery. 
The  Genus  Coryphcena  contains  the 
Dolphins,  which  are  large,  and  beautiful 

,       , 

nii,  Cuv.  &  Vai.      in  their  colors,  and  celebrated  for  the 
war  which  they  wage  against  the  flying-fishes,  and  for 

Fig.  207. 


Fig.  206. 


Blunt-Nosed  Shiner, 


Dolphin,  C.  doradon,  Cuv.  &  Val. 


They 


the  brilliant  hues  which  they  exhibit  when  dying. 
inhabit  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean. 

TEUTHID.E,  OR  LANCET-FISH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  spine-rayed  herbivorous  fishes  which  inhabit 
Fig.  208.  the  warm  seas.     About  a  hun- 

dred  species   have   been    de- 
scribed. 

The  Genus  Acanthums  con- 
tains  the    Surgeon,   A.  phle- 
botomtis,    Bloch,   from    six   to 
Surgeon,  A  .  phiebotomus,K\<xh.       ten  inches  long,  which  has  a 
movable  spine  at  the  base  of  the  tail. 

LABYRINTHICI,  OR   CLIMBING   PERCH  FAMILY.  —  This 


ACANTHOPTERYGIANS  :    MUGILID^.  337 

Family  includes  spine-rayed  fishes  which  have  an  appa- 
ratus by  which  they  retain  water  for  the  purpose  of  mois- 
tening their  gills  while  they  are  upon  shore  ;  for  at  times 
they  quit  the  water  and  crawl  for  a  considerable  distance 
upon  dry  land.  They  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of  the  East 
Indies  and  South  Africa. 

MUGILID.E,  OR  MULLET  FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises spine-rayed  fishes  with  a  nearly  cylindrical  bo4y, 
large  scales,  two  distinct  dorsals,  head  somewhat  depressed 
and  covered  with  large  scales  or  plates,  and  the  muzzle 
short.  They  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  and  coasts  of  tem- 
perate and  tropical  regions,  and  about  eighty  species  are 
known. 

The  Genus  Mugil  is  represented  by  several  species  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  Fig.  209. 

States,  all  of  which  are  small,  vary- 
ing from  six  to  eight  or  nine  inches 
in  length,  and  of  a  silvery  color. 

The  Genus  Atherina  contains  the     Striped  Mullet)  ^  UneatuSt 
Silversides.    The  Dotted  Silverside, 
A.  notata,  Mitch.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States,  is  three  to  four  inches  long,  with  a  broad  silvery 
band  from  the  branchial  aperture  to  the  tail,  and  dark 
points  on  each  scale. 

GOBID^E,  OR  GOBY  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
spine-rayed  fishes  with  a  more  or  less  elongated  body, 
small  scales  or  none,  slender  and  flexible  dorsal  spines, 
and  small  branchial  apertures.  About  thirty  genera  and 
about  three  hundred  species  are  described. 

The  Genus  Blennius  —  Blennies  —  has  a  single  dorsal, 
smooth  skin,  and  ventrals  under  the  throat.  The  species 
are  found  in  small  communities  among  the  rocks  near  the 
shore,  and  are  capable  of  living  without  water  for  some 
time.  They  are  all  small,  some  of  them  only  one  or  two 
inches  long,  and  covered  with  a  slimy  mucus. 

15  v 


338  VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 

The  Genus  Gunnellus  has  a  much-compressed  body, 
spinous  dorsal  rays,  and  ventrals  often  reduced  to  a  sin- 
gle spine. 

The  American  Butter-Fish,  G.  mucronatus,  Cuv.,  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  from  four  to  twelve  inches  long,  grayish,  with 
a  series  of  dusky  oval  rings  along  the  sides. 

The  Genus  Zoarces  has  an  elongated  body,  dorsal,  anal, 
and  caudal  united,  and  no  spinous  rays  in  the  dorsal 
except  in  its  posterior  part.  The  Eel-shaped  Blenny,  or 

Fig.  210. 


Eel-Pout,  Z.  anguillaris,  Storer. 


Eel-Pout,  Z.  anguillaris,  Storer,  is  from  twenty-four  to 
thirty-six  inches  long,  dark  olive-brown,  varied  with  dusky 
blotches.  It  is  caught  in  fishing  for  Cod. 

The  Genus  Anarrhicas  —  Wolf-Fish  —  has  a  smooth, 
elongated,  and  slimy  body,  globular  head,  dorsal  and  anal 
distinct  from  the  caudal  fin,  and  teeth  of  two  kinds,  one 
kind  long,  curved,  and  sharp,  the  other  truncated  or 
abruptly  rounded.  Their  dentition  furnishes  fishes  of 
this  genus  with  powerful  weapons,  which,  added  to  their 
great  size  and  ferocity,  make  them  very  dangerous  antag- 
onists. 

The  Sea- Wolf,  or  Sea-Cat,  A.  vomerinus,  Ag.,  of  the 
Atlantic,  is  from  three  to  five  feet  or  more  in  length,  of  a 
gray  color. 

The  Genus  Gobius  —  Gobies  —  has  the  thoracic  ven- 
trals united,  either  along  their  whole  length,  or  at  least 
at  the  base,  forming  a  hollow  disk.  The  species  are 
small,  some  of  them  only  two  or  three  inches  long,  and 
live  among  the  rocks  near  the  shore.  Some  of  them  are 
viviparous.  Over  a  hundred  species  are  known. 


ACANTHOPTERYGIANS  :    PEDICULATI.  339 

PEDICULATI,  OR  ANGLER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces fishes  that  are  usually  without  scales,  or  these  are 
replaced  by  bony  plates,  or  grains  bearing  spines,  and 
whose  carpel  bones  are  elongated,  forming  a  sort  of  arm 
to  support  the  pectorals.  Eight  genera  and  about  forty 
species  have  been  described. 

The  Genus  Lophius  has  the  head  and  mouth  enor- 
mously large,  two  dorsals,  the  anterior  rays  distant,  and 
forming  long  filaments  bearing  fleshy  slips. 

The  American  Angler,  Fishing-Frog,  or  Goose-Fish, 

Pig.  211. 


Angler,  or  Goose-Fish,  L.  arruricanus,  Cuv. 

L.  americanus,  Cuv.,  of  the  Atlantic,  is  from  two  to  three 
feet  long,  and  attains  a  weight  of  seventy  pounds  in  some 
cases.  It  is  exceedingly  voracious,  and  its  enormous 
mouth  enables  it  to  swallow  fishes  about  as  large  as 
itself.  Large  sea-birds,  as  gulls,  are  frequently  found 
whole  in  its  stomach. 

The  Genus  Chironectes — Hand-Fishes  —  has  a  com- 
pressed head  and  body,  vertically  cleft  mouth,  and  fins 
suited  to  creeping.  The  species  belong  mostly  ta  the 
warm  seas.  The  smooth  Chironectes,  or  Mouse-Fish,  C. 
kzvigatus,  Cuv.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States, 
is  from  two  to  four  inches  long. 


340  VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 

The  Genus  Batrachus  contains  the  Toad-Fishes.     The 
Common  Toad-Fish,  B.  tau,  Linn.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
F;    2i2  of  the  United  States,  is  from 

six  to  twelve  inches  long,  olive 
green  above,  mottled  with 
darker ;  light  below.  It  is 
often  found  in  cavities  under 

Toad-Fish,  B.  tau,  Linn.  ,  -, 

stones,  and  seems  to  show  a 
care  for  its  young,  which  are  found  in  such  situations. 

LABRID^E,  OR  TAUTOG  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises spine-rayed  fishes  which  have  the  body  oblong  and 
scaly,  and  a  single  dorsal  supported  in  front  by  spines. 
A  large  number  of  genera  and  several  hundred  species 
are  known. 

The  Genus  Ctenolabrus  has  a  denticulated  preopercu- 
lum,  and  three  spinous  rays  to  the  anal  fin.  The  Conner, 
Fig  213.  Blue-Perch,  or  Burgall,  C.  Burgall,  C. 

&  V.,  of  the  North  Atlantic,  is  from  six 
to  twelve  inches  long,  color  exceed- 
ingly variable,  but  generally  bluish, 
Conner,  c.  BurSaii,c.  &v.  passing  into  reddish  or  bronze.  From 
June  to  September  it  is  extremely  abundant  on  the  coast, 
and  is  taken  in  immense  numbers  with  hook  and  net.  It 
is  considered  an  excellent  fish  for  the  table,  when  fried. 

The  Genus  Tautoga  has  the  operculum  and  preopercu- 
lum  without  spines  or  denticulations.  The  Tautog,  T. 
americana,  Dekay,  of  the  coast  of  New  England  and 
southward,  is  from  six  to  eighteen  inches  long,  the  color 
generally  bluish  black,  with  irregular  darker  blotches  and 
bands.  It  bites  freely  from  early  spring  till  late  in  autumn, 
and  is  highly  prized  for  food.  It  is  called  Black-Fish  at 
New  York  and  on  the  Southern  coast.  It  averages  only 
one  or  two  pounds  in  weight ;  but  individuals  have  been 
taken  which  weighed  sixteen  pounds. 


MALACOPTERYGIANS  :   CYPRINID^.  341 

SUB-SECTION   II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  ABDOMINAL  MALACOPTERYGIANS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  fishes  in  which  the  ventrals  are 
suspended  to  the  under  part  of  the  abdomen,  and  .behind 
the  pectorals,  without  being  attached  to  the  bones  of  the 
shoulder.  It  contains  a  large  majority  of  all  fresh-water 
fishes. 

CYPRINIDJE,  OR  CARP  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises scaly  fishes  which  have  a  slightly  cleft  mouth,  and 
weak  jaws  without  teeth.  Of  all  fishes,  they  are  the  least 
carnivorous.  About  two  hundred  and  seventy  species 
have  been  described. 

The  Genus  Cy primes  contains  the  Carps  proper. 

The  Common  Carp,  C.  carpio,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  attains 
the  length  of  four  feet,  is  olive  green,  yellowish  beneath. 
It  is  bred  in  fish-ponds,  and  esteemed  for  food.  In 
1831,  Henry  Robinson,  Esq.,  of  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  intro- 
duced this  species  into  his  fish-pond,  where  it  increased 
and  grew  so  rapidly,  that  he  had  more  than  enough  to 
supply  his  table.  He  afterwards  put  many  of  them  into 
the  Hudson  River,  and  these  have  so  increased,  that  they 
are  often  taken  by  the  fishermen. 

The  Golden  Carp,  or  Gold-Fish,  C.  auratus,  Linn.,  com- 
mon in  aquaria  and  vases,  is  indigenous  to  China.  It  was 
introduced  into  Europe  early  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
It  breeds  in  ponds  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States. 

The  Genus  Leuciscus,  as  formerly  defined,  includes  the 
Dace  and  Shiners  of  the  United  States  ;  but  writers  now 
refer  these  fishes  to  several  genera.  The  Brook-Minnow, 
or  Black-nosed  Dace,  L.  atronasus,  Cuv.  &  Val.,  Rhinich- 
thys  atronasus,  Ag.,  is  three  inches  long,  tail  forked,  color 
greenish  above,  abdomen  silvery,  and  a  dark  band  from 
the  nose  to  the  tail  The  Common  Shiner,  Plargyrus 


342  VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 

Fig.  214.  americanuS)  Putn.,  L.  americanus,  Storer, 

is  from  three  to  six  inches  long,  head 
small,  tail  forked,  general  color  golden, 
dark  above.  The  Red-Fin,  Hypsolepis 
cornutus,  Ag.,  L.  cornutus,  Storer,  is  from 

Shiner,  P.  amertcanus, 

Putnam.  three  to  six  inches  long,  fins  and  oper- 

cles  margined  with  crimson,  the  male  with  numerous 
tubercles  on  the  head.  It  is  often  found  with  trout. 

The  Beautiful  .Leuciscus,  Dace,  or  Chivin,  Semotilus 
argenteus,  Putn.,  L.  pulchellus,  Storer,  of  the  Eastern 
States  and  New  York,  is  from  twelve  to  fourteen  inches 
long,  back  slightly  arched,  and  the  color  brown.  The 
Black-headed  Dace,  L.  atromaculatus,  of  New  York,  is 
six  to  twelve  inches  long.  It  is  known  as  the  Lake  Chub. 

CATOSTOMI,  OR  SUCKER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  con- 
tains soft-fmned  fishes  which  have  a  single  dorsal,  the 
mouth  beneath  the  snout,  lips  plaited,  lobed,  or  caruncu- 
lated,  and  suitable  for  sucking.  It  contains  the  well-known 
Suckers,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  and  the  Chub- 
Suckers,  of  the  ponds  and  streams  of  the  United  States. 
Large  numbers  move  together,  and  some  of  the  former 
attain  the  weight  of  ten  pounds. 

CYPRINODONTID.E.  —  This  Family  contains  fishes  whose 
mouth  is  constructed  as  in  the  Cyprinidae,  but  with  teeth 
upon  the  jaws,  and  the  dorsal  is  opposite  the  anal  fin. 
The  Genera  Fundulus  and  Hydrargyra  are  closely  allied  ; 
but  the  latter  has  a  more  flattened  head  than  the  former, 
and  six  branchial  rays  instead  of  five.  The  former  in- 
cludes the  Ornamented  Minnow,  Mummachog,  or  Cobler, 
'F.  pisculentus,  Cuv.  &  Val.,  of  the  brackish  waters  of  the 
coast  of  New  England,  and  several  fresh-water  species. 
The  Cobler  is  extensively  used  for  bait. 

ESOCID^E,  OR  PIKE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises 
soft-finned  fishes  which  have  the  body  long,  one  dorsal 
generally  opposite  the  anal,  and  a  very  large  mouth 


MALACOPTERYGIANS  I    ESOCID^. 


343 


Pickerel,  E.  reticulatus,  LeSueur. 


extensively  armed  with  very  sharp  teeth.     Twenty-five  or 
more  species  are  known,  all  inhabiting  fresh  waters. 

The  Genus  Esox  is  characterized  by  an  oblong,  broad, 
and  depressed  snout.  The  species  are  very  voracious. 
The  Muskallunge,  or  Pike,  E.  estor,  LeS.,  of  the  North 
American  lakes,  is  twelve  to  forty-eight  inches  long,  and 
sometimes  attains  the  weight  of  thirty  pounds.  The  Com- 
mon Pickerel,  E.  Fig.  215. 
retictdatus,  LeS., 
of  the  Eastern 
States,  is  from 
twelve  to  thirty- 
six  inches  long. 
The  Short-nosed  Pickerel,  E.  fasciatus,  Dekay,  is  smaller 
than  the  preceding,  with  a  short  snout,  and  is  common  in 
the  brooks  and  rivers  of  New  England. 

SCOMBERESOCIM:,  OR  BILL-FISH  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily is  allied  to  the  preceding  one,  with  which  it  was  for- 
merly united.  All  the  representatives  are  marine. 

The  Genus  Belone — Gar-Fishes  —  has  the  head  and 
body  greatly  elongated,  the  jaws  narrow,  pointed,  and 
armed  with  numerous  small  teeth.  The  bones  are  re- 
markable for  their  green  col- 
or. The  Gar-Fish,  B.  trun- 
cata,  LeS.,  of  the  Atlantic,  is 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four 
inches  long,  green  above  and 
silvery  beneath,  with  a  dark 
green  longitudinal  band  upon 
the  sides. 

The  Genus  Scomberesox  has  the  last  rays  of  the  dorsal 
and  anal  detached.  The  Bill-Fish,  5.  Storeri,  Dekay,  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  is  from  ten  to  twelve 
inches  long,  dark  green  above,  silvery  below. 

FISTULARID.E,  OR  FLUTE-MOUTH  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 


Fig.  216. 


Gar-Fish,  B.  truncata,  LeS. 


344  VERTEBRATES  :   FISHES. 

ily  embraces  fishes  which  have  a  long  tube  in  front  of  the 
cranium,  at  the  extremity  of  which  is  the  mouth.  They 
inhabit  the  warm  seas,  and  are  sometimes  called  Tobacco- 
Pipe  Fishes.  The  Genus  Fistularia  has  a  very  long  fila- 
ment extending  from  between  the  two  lobes  of  the  tail. 
The  Tobacco-Pipe  Fish,  F.  serrata,  Bloch,  of  the  southern 
coast  of  Massachusetts  and  southward,  is  nineteen  inches 
long  without  the  filament,  or  twenty-eight  including  it. 

EXOCGETID^:,  OR  FLYING-FISH  FAMILY. — This  Family 
is  characterized  by  the  excessive  development  of  the  pec- 
Fig.  217.  torals,    which    are    about    the 
length  of  the  body,  and  enable 
the  possessors  to  support  them- 
selves in  the  air  for  a  few  mo- 
ments.    Fishes  of  this  family 
are  found  in  all  warm  and  tem- 
perate  seas,  and  there  are  many 
species  from  three  to  twelve  inches  in  length. 

HYPS^ID^:,  OR  BLIND-FISH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  the  Blind-Fish,  Amblyopsis  spelceus,  Dekay,  of 
Fig-  218.  the    Mammoth     Cave,     Kentucky. 

This  celebrated  fish  is  about  three 
,       ^  ^  inches  long,  with  the  vent  before 

Blind-Fish,  A  .  speteus,  Dek.  the  base  of  the  pectorals,  and  the 
eyes  concealed  under  the  skin  so  as  to  make  the  fish  per- 
fectly blind,  and  thus  adapted  to  the  dark  waters  of  the 
cave. 

THE  SILURID/E,  OR  CAT-FISH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
is  readily  distinguished  from  all  other  abdominal  mala- 
copterygians ,  by  the  absence  of  scales,  the  skin  being 
either  naked  or  covered  with  large  bony  plates.  The 
head  in  most  cases  is  large,  depressed,  and  with  several 
fleshy  filaments.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  the  first  ray  of 
the  dorsal  and  pectoral  has  a  strong  spine,  which  is  so 
articulated  that  the  fish  can  bring  it  close  to  the  body, 


MALACOPTERYGIANS  I    SALMONID.E. 


345 


or  immovably  extend  it,  thus  constituting  it  a  dangerous 
weapon.  There  are  about  thirty-three  genera  and  three 
hundred  species,  and  they  abound  in  nearly  all  fresh 
waters,  especially  those  that  are  sluggish,  or  with  muddy 
bottoms.  Some,  however,  are  marine. 

The  Genus  Silurus  contains  the  Silurus,  5.  glanis,  of 
the  rivers  of  Germany  and  Hungary,  which  sometimes  ex- 
ceeds six  feet  in  length,  and  weighs  three  hundred  pounds. 

The  Genus  Pimelodus  contains  the  Cat-Fishes  of  the 
United  States,  of  which  there  are  about  thirty  species. 

The  Cat-Fish  of  the  Great  Lakes,  P.  nigricans,  LeS.,  is 
from  two  to  four  feet  long,  and  at-  Fig.  219. 

tains  the  weight  of  thirty  pounds. 
The  Common  Horned  Pout,  P. 
atrarius,  Dekay,  is  from  -six  to  ten 
inches  long,  and  abounds  in  ponds 
and  slow  streams. 

SALMONID^:,  OR  SALMON  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises abdominal  malacopterygians  which  have  the  body 
more  or  less  scaly,  a  first  dorsal  with  soft  rays,  followed 
by  a  second  small  one,  which  is  fatty,  and  unsupported  by 
rays.  They  inhabit  both  salt  and  fresh  water,  are  very 
voracious,  and  highly  prized  for  food.  The  Genus  Sal- 
mo  is  the  principal  one. 

Fig.  220. 


Horned  Pout,  P.  atnriw,  Dek. 


Salmon,  S.  salar,  Linn. 


The  Salmon,  5.  salar,  Linn.,  of  the  Arctic  seas,  whence 
it  visits  the  rivers  of  both  continents,  is  one  of  the  largest 
15* 


346  VERTEBRATES  :    FISHES. 

of  the  genus,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  delicious  flesh.  It 
is  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  long,  and  attains 
a  weight  of  thirty  pounds  or  more. 

The  Great  Trout  of  the  Lakes,  ,S.  amethystus,  Mitch., 
of  the  Northern  lakes  of  North  America,  is  from  twenty- 
four  to  sixty  inches  long,  dark  gray,  with  numerous  lighter 
spots  on  the  back  and  sides  ;  under  parts  light  ashy- 
gray  or  cream-color.  It  sometimes  attains  the  weight 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  and  is  often  called 
Mackinaw  Trout.  It  is  also  known  as  the  Longe. 

The  Speckled  Trout,  or  Brook  Trout,  ,S.  fontinalis, 

Mitch.,  of  the  clear  streams  of  Northern  North  America, 

is  from  six  to  twenty  inches  long,  horn-color  above  with 

irregular  darker  markings,  sides  bluish  mixed  with  silvery 

white,   and   ornamented  with  yellow 

Fig.    221.  ^         J 

spots  and  vermilion  dots.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  trout,  and  probably 
some  of  the  so-called  varieties  are  dis- 

Trout,  S .  fontinalis,  Mitch.         .  .  .,,  1*11  i 

tmct  species.  All  are  highly  prized 
on  account  of  the  delicacy  of  their  flesh. 

The  Genus  Osmerus  contains  the  American  Smelt,  O. 
viridescens,  LeS.,  which  is  six  to  twelve  inches  long,  green- 
ish above,  silvery  beneath,  with  an  obscure  satin-like  lon- 
gitudinal band.  It  abounds  on  the  coast,  and  ascends 
rivers,  from  New  York  northward. 

The  Genus  Coregonus  contains  the  White-Fish,  C.  al- 
b^LS,  LeS.,  which  is  from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long, 
bluish-gray  above  and  white  below,  and  inhabits  the  Great 
Lakes;  and  the  Common  Shad  Salmon,  C.  clupeiformis, 
Dekay,  of  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 

CLUPEID/E,  OR  HERRING  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces abdominal  malacopterygians  which  have  the  body 
compressed,  very  scaly,  and  the  inferior  portion  of  the 
body  forming  an  edge  more  or  less  serrated.  The  Genus 
Clupea  comprises  the  Herrings  proper.  The  Common 


MALACOPTERYGIANS  :    CLUPEID^.  347 

Herring,  C.  elongata,  LeS.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North 
America,  is  about  twelve  inches  Fig.  222. 

long,  deep  blue,  tinged  with 
yellow  above,  and  silvery  be- 
neath. Three  thousand  bar- 
rels of  this  herring  have  been  Herrin&  c-  *b*g**** 
taken  at  Martha's  Vineyard  in  a  single  year.  Herrings 
live  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and  come  southward  in  spring  to 
deposit  their  eggs. 

The  Pilchard,  C.  pilchardus,  Bl.,  of  the  coast  of  England, 
is  about  the  size  of  the  herring.  The  Sardine,  C.  sardina, 
Cuv.,  is  taken  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  celebrated  for 
its  extreme  delicacy  of  flavor. 

The  Genus  Alausa  is  distinguished  from  the  Herrings 
by  a  deep  notch  in  the  middle  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  by 
the  roof  of  the  mouth  and  the  tongue,  which  are  desti- 
tute of  teeth.  It  contains  the  Shad,  Alewive,  Menhaden, 
Autumnal  Herring,  and  allied  species. 

The  American  Shad,  A.  prcestabilis,  Dekay,  is  about 
twenty  inches  long.  It  appears  upon  the  coast,  and 
ascends  the  rivers  of  South  Carolina  in  January  and 
February,  of  the  Middle  States  in  March  or  the  first  of 
April,  and  of  Massachusetts  in  May. 

The  Genus  Elops  has  a  cylindrical  body,  and  a  flat 
spine  on  the  upper  and  under  edges  of  the  caudal  fin. 
The  Saury,  E.  saunts,  Linn.,  of  the  Atlantic,  is  from 
eleven  to  twenty-two  inches  long,  body  silvery,  with  a 
greenish  tinge  above.  •  . 

SAURID^E,  OR  GAR-PIKE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises elongated  fishes  covered  with  scales  of  stony  hard- 
ness, which  are  extended  into  imbricated  spines  upon  the 
first  rays  of  all  the  fins.  About  fifteen  species,  all  Ameri- 
can and  West  Indian,  are  known. 

The  Genus  Lepidosteus  is  characterized  by  elongat- 
ed slightly  unequal  jaws,  which  are  furnished  over  their 


348 


VERTEBRATES  I    FISHES. 


Fig.  223. 


whole  inner  sur- 
face with  rasp- 
like  teeth,  and 
a  row  of  long, 
pointed  teeth  a- 
long  their  edg- 

Gar-Pike,  Lepidosteus. 

es.    It  contains 

the  Gar-Pikes  of  the  Northern  lakes  and  the  Western 
and  Southern  rivers,  one  species  in  Central  America,  and 
another  in  Cuba. 

SUB-SECTION    III. 

THE  ORDER   OF   SUB-BRACHIAN   MALACOPTERYGIANS. 

THIS  Order  embrace's  soft-rayed  fishes  which  have  the 
ventrals  inserted  under  the  pectorals,  and  the  pelvis 
directly  attached  to  the  bones  of  the  shoulder. 

GADID.E,  OR  COD  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  includes  the 
Cod  and  its  allies,  about  sixty  species  of  which  are 
known,  most  of  them  inhabiting  cold  or  temperate  seas. 

The  Genus  Morrhua  —  Cods  —  has  three  dorsals,  two 
anals,  and  a  barbel  at  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw. 

The  American  Cod,  M.  americana,  Storer,  is  from  twen- 
ty-four to  thirty-six  inches  long,  olive-green  above,  dusky- 
Fig.  224. 


American  Cod,  M.  atnericana,  Storer. 


white  beneath,  and  the  back  and  sides  marked  with  yel- 
lowish spots.  There  are  several  varieties,  differing  in  their 
color  and  markings.  This  species  attains  the  weight  of 


MALACOPTERYGIANS  I    GADID^E  349 

a  hundred  pounds  in  some  instances.  In  1840,  the  ton- 
nage of  vessels  engaged  in  our  cod-fisheries  was  75,000, 
and  the  number  of  fishermen  more  than  18,000.  The 
Tom-Cod,  or  Frost-Fish,  M.  pruinosa,  Dekay,  of  the  North 
Atlantic,  is  from  four  to  twelve  inches  long,  olive-green 
above,  and  silvery  below.  It  is  unusually  abundant  in 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers  after  the  first  frosts  of  autumn  ; 
hence  one  of  its  popular  names.  The  Haddock,  M.  cegle- 
finus,  Linn.,  of  the  North  Atlantic,  is  twelve  to  twenty- 
four  inches  long,  blackish-brown  above,  silvery  gray  be- 
low, the  lateral  line  jet  black. 

The  Genus  Merlangus  has  three  dorsal  and  two  anal 
fins,  and  no  barbels  on  the  chin.  The  Pollack,  M.  purpu- 
reus,  Storer,  is  from  eighteen  to  thirty-six  inches  long,  the 
caudal  deeply  concave. 

The  Genus  Merlucius  has  the  head  flattened,  body 
elongated,  only  two  dorsal  fins,  barbels  wanting. 

The  American  Hake,  or  Whiting,  M,  albidus,  Dekay, 
is  from  twelve  to  thirty-six  inches  long,  reddish-brown 
above,  soiled-white  below. 

The  Genus  Lota  has  two  dorsal  fins,  one  anal,  an4  bar- 
bels on  the  chin.    The  Spotted  Burbot,  Fig  225 
L.  maculosa,  LeS.,   of  our   Northern 
lakes  and  rivers,  is  twenty-four  inches 

lonff  "  Burbot,  L.  maculosa,  LeS. 

The  Genus  Brosmius  has  a  single  dorsal  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  back.  The  Cusk,  B.flavescens,  LeS., 
of  the  Atlantic,  is  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Phycis  has  two  dorsals,  the  first  short,  the 
second  long,  the  ventrals  with  a  single  ray,  and  a  single 
barbel  at  the  chin. 

The  Hake,  P.  americanus,  Storer,  of  the  North  Atlan- 
tic, is  from  twelve  to  thirty-six  inches  long,  the  color 
reddish-brown.  It  is  usually  taken  with  the  hook  at  night, 
on  muddy  bottoms. 


350 


VERTEBRATES  :    FISHES. 


PLEURONECTID.E,  OR  FLOUNDER  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  fishes  which  have  the  body  flat,  being  com- 
pressed vertically,  both  eyes  on  the  same  side  of  the  head, 
sides  of  the  mouth  unequal,  and  a  dorsal  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  back.  The  side  upon  which  the  eyes 
are  placed  is  always  uppermost  when  the  animal  is  swim- 
ming, and  is  deeply  colored  ;  while  that  on  which  the  eyes 
are  wanting  is  always  whitish.  They  have  no  natatory 
bladder,  and  seldom  quit  the  bottom.  The  want  of  sym- 
metry between  the  two  sides  of  the  fishes  of  this  family 
Fig.  226.  is  seen  in  no  other  verte- 

brates. About  one  hundred 
and  thirty  species  are  known, 
all  of  which  are  marine. 

The  Genus  Platessa  con- 
tains the  Flounders  proper, 
Flounder,  B.  piano,  Mitch.  which  are  from  six  to  twen- 

ty-five inches  long.     Turbots  and  Soles  are  representa- 
tives of  genera  closely  allied  to  the  preceding  one. 

The  Genus  Hippoglossus  embraces  the  Halibuts,  which 
have  the  eyes  and  color  on  the  right  side. 

The  Halibut,  H.  vulgaris,  Cuv.,  of  the  North  Atlantic, 
is  from  two  to  eight  feet  long,  ashen-gray  on  the  right 
side,  white  on  the  other.  It  attains  the  weight  of  six 
hundred  pounds  in  some  cases. 

CYCLOPTERID.E,  OR  LUMP-FISH  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  fishes  whose 
ventrals  are  united  into  a 
disk  or  cup-shaped  form. 
By  means  of  the  disk,  these 
fishes  are  able  to  attach 
themselves  to  the  surface 
of  the  rocks  with  great 
Lump-Fish,  c.  lump™,  Linn.  firmness.  The  Genus  Cy- 

clopterus  contains  the  Lump-Sucker,   C.  lumpus,  Linn., 


Fig.  227. 


MALACOPTERYGIANS  :  ANGUILLID^.  351 

which  is  from  ten  to  twenty  inches  long,  and  inhabits 
the  North  Atlantic.  Pennant  states  that,  upon  putting 
one  into  a  pail  of  water,  it  adhered  so  firmly,  that  he  lifted 
the  whole  pailful,  several  gallons,  by  taking  hold  of  the 
fish  by  the  tail.  . 

ECHENEID.E,  OR  REMORA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces fishes  which  have  a  flattened  disk  upon  the  head, 
composed  of  a  number  of  transverse  cartilaginous  lam- 
inae directed  obliquely  backwards,  serrated  or  spiny  on 
the  hind  edge,  and  movable,  so  that  by  creating  a  vacuum 
between  them,  or  by  hooking  on  to  various  bodies  by 
means  of  the  serrated  edges,  they  are  enabled  to  attach 
themselves  very  firmly.  The  Genus  Echeneis  is  the  prin- 

Fig.  228.  Fig.  229. 


White-tailed  Remora,  E.  albicauda,  Mitch.  Disk  of  Remora. 

cipal  one.  The  species  are  few,  and  chiefly  tropical ;  but 
some  are  taken  on  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Labrador. 
They  are  from  twelve  to  thirty  inches  long,  and  often  found 
attached  to  other  marine  animals. 


SUB-SECTION    IV. 

APODAL  MALACOPTERYGIANS. 

THIS  Order  is  represented  by  one  great  family,  con- 
taining about  one  hundred  known  species. 

ANGUILLIDJE,  OR  EEL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  has  the 
body  much  elongated,  cylindrical,  and  covered  with  a 
thick,  soft  skin.  The  scales,  when  present,  as  in  the 
common  Eel,  are  scattered,  and  deeply  imbedded  in  the 
skin. 

The  Genus  Anguilla  —  Eels  proper  —  has  the  dorsal 


352  VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 

and  anal  continued  around 

Fig.  230. 

the  end  of  the  tail,  form- 
ing by  their  union  a  point- 
ed caudal.  The  common 
fresh-  and  salt-water  Eel, 

Eel,  A.  bostoniensis,  LeS.  ^  boStOHieHSlS,  LeS.,  of  the 

United  States,  is  twelve  to  sixty  inches  in  length. 

The  Genus  Mur&na  has  no  vestige  of  pectorals.  The 
Roman  Muraena,  M.  Helena,  Linn.,  of  the  Mediterranean, 
attains  the  length  of  thirty-six  inches  or  more,  and  is 
mottled  with  brown  and  yellowish.  This  fish  was  highly 
prized  by  the  ancients,  who  fed  it  in  ponds  constructed 
expressly  for  it.  Vedius  Pollio  caused  his  transgressing 
slaves  to  be  flung  alive  into  these  ponds  as  food  for  the 
muraenae.  The  Romans  domesticated  these  eels  so  that 
they  would  approach  at  call. 

The  Genus  Gymnotus  has  the  anal  fin  beneath  a  greater 
part  of  the  body,  and  generally  as  far  as  the  end  of  the 
tail,  but  no  dorsal.  The  Gymnotus,  or  Electrical  Eel,  G. 
electricus,  Linn.,  of  the  warm  regions  of  South  America, 
is  five  or  six  feet  long,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  ability  to 
communicate  such  electrical  shocks  that  men  and  animals 
are  struck  down  by  them. 

The  Genus  Ammodytes  has  the  dorsal  fin  extending 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  back,  the  anal  long,  and 
both  separated  from  the  caudal,  which  is  forked.  The 
species  are  marine,  and  live  in  the  sand,  and  are  known 
as  Sand-Eels,  or  Sand-Launces. 

SUB-SECTION   V. 

THE  ORDER  OF  LOPHOBRANCHIATES,  OR  TUFT-GILLED   FISHES. 

THIS  Order  comprises  fishes  which  have  the  gills  in 
small  round  tufts  arranged  in  pairs  along  the  branchial 
arches,  instead  of  resembling,  as  in  other  fishes,  the  teeth 
of  a  comb. 


LOPHOBRANCHIATES  :  SYNGNATHID^.        353 

SYNGNATHID.E,  OR  PIPE-FISH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
is  usually  made  to  include  all  the  Lophobranchiates. 

The  Genus  Syngnathus  —  Pipe-Fishes  —  has  the  body 
exceedingly  elongated,  slender,  and  covered  with  a  series 
of  hard  plates  parallel  to  each  other ;  the  snout  prolonged, 
with  the  mouth  at  the  extremity  ;  no  ventral  fins  ;  and  the 
males  of  many  species  have  Fjg.  23i. 

a  pouch  for  the  reception 

Of  the   eggS,  in  Which  the  Pipe-Fish,  S.  Peckianus,  Storer. 

young  are  hatched.    Several  species  are  known,  five  to  ten 
inches  long,  all  inhabiting  tropical  and  temperate  seas. 

The  Genus  Hippocampus —  Sea-Horses  —  has  the  body 
short,  compressed,  covered  with  angular  and       Fig  232 
spinous  plates,  neither  ventral  nor  caudal  fin, 
a  prehensile  tail,  and  the  head  and  neck  have 
some  resemblance  to  those  of  a  horse.     Sev- 
eral  species   are .  known,   from   three  to  six 
inches  long,  all  marine.     H.  hudsonius,  De- 
kay,   of  the   Atlantic   coast   of   the    United 
States,  is  about  five  inches  long. 

SUB-SECTION   VI. 

THE   ORDER   OF   PLECTOGNATHES. 

THIS  Order  comprises  fishes  whose  chief  characteristic 
is  that  the  maxillary  bone  is  permanently  attached  to  the 
intermaxillary,  which  alone  constitutes  the  jaw. 

GYMNODONTID.E.  —  This  Family  embraces  those  whose 
jaws  are  furnished  with  a  bony  substance  resembling 
enamel,  and  divided  internally  into  laminae.  These  lam- 
inae are  really  true  teeth  united,  which  succeed  each  other 
as  fast  as  they  are  destroyed  by  trituration.  About  sixty 
species  are  known,  all  marine. 

The  Genus  Diodon  has  all  the  teeth  united  into  one  in 
each  jaw,  and  the  surface  of  the  body  covered  with  spines. 


354 


VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 


Fig.  234. 


The  Genus  Tetrodon  has  each  jaw  divided  in  the  mid- 
dle by  a  suture,  thus  giving  the  appearance  of  two  teeth 
in  each  jaw;  and  the  body  is  wholly  or  partly  covered 
Fig.  233.  with  spines.     The  members  of 

this  genus,  and  the  Diodons, 
possess  the  faculty  of  inflating 
themselves  like  a  balloon,  by 
swallowing  air.  The  Common 

Puffer,  T.  turgidus,  Mitch.  Swell-Fish,  Or  Puffer,  T.  Turgi- 

dusy  Mitch.,  of  the  Atlantic,  is  from  six  to  twelve  inches 
long. 

The  Genus  Orthagoriscus  has  the  body  short  and  com- 
pressed. The  Short 
Sun  -  Fish,  O.  mola, 
Schr.,  of  the  Atlantic, 
attains  the  length  of 
four  feet,  and  the 
weight  of  five  hun- 
dred pounds  or  more. 
BALISTID.E,  OR 
FILE-FISH  FAMILY. — 
This  Family  embraces 
fishes  with  a  conical  or 
pyramidal  snout,  com- 
pressed body,  eight 
teeth  in  a  single  row 
in  each  jaw,  the  skin 
scaly  or  granulated,  two  dorsals,  the  first  composed 
of  one  or  more  spines,  and  the  ventrals  indistinct  or 
wanting.  They  abound  in  the  warm  regions,  and  their 
colors  are  brilliant.  Several  species,  from  three  to  nine 
inches  long,  are  found  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States. 

OSTRACIONID^E,  OR  TRUNK-FISH  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  fishes  which  have  the  head  and  body  cov- 


Sun-Fish,  O.  mola,  Schr. 


STURIONES:    STURIONIDjE.  355 

ered  with  regular  bony  plates,  F; 

soldered  in  such  a  manner  as 

to  form  an  inflexible  shield,  so 

that  the  mouth,  tail,  and  fins 

are   the   only   movable  parts. 

Thirty   or   more    species    are 

known,  inhabiting  tropical  and 

,  _  Trunk-Fish,  L.  camelinus,  Dekay. 

temperate  seas.      The  Genus 

Lactophrys  contains  two  or  more  species,  from  three  and 
a  half  to  fourteen  inches  long,  which  are  found  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States. 

SUB-SECTION   VII. 

THE  ORDER  OF  STURIONES,  OR  STURGEON. 

THIS  Order  embraces  cartilaginous  fishes  with  free 
gills,  and  one  large  external  opening  on  each  side,  with  a 
strong  operculum. 

STURIONID.E,  OR  STURGEON  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  those  which  have  large  bony  plates  arranged  in 
longitudinal  rows,  the  mouth  under  the  snout,  without 

Fig.  236. 


Sturgeon,  A.  oxyrhynchus,  Mitch. 

teeth,  and  very  protractile,  and  the  lobes  of  the  tail  un- 
equal. The  Genus  Acipenser  contains  the  Sturgeons 
proper.  They  inhabit  lakes  and  the  sea,  and  ascend  the 
rivers  of  many  countries.  The  Sharp-nosed  Sturgeon,  A. 
oxyrhynchus,  Mitch.,  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  Amer^ 
ica,  is  from  four  to  eight  feet  long.  The  Lake  Sturgeon, 
A.  rubicundus,  LeS.,  of  the  Great  Lakes,  is  about  four 
feet  long,  and  of  a  ruddy  hue.  Several  other  species  be- 
long to  North  America.  The  Great  Sturgeon,  A. 


356  VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 

Linn.,  of  Europe,  attains  a  weight  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
hundred  pounds.  The  isinglass  of  commerce  is  prepared 
from  the  swimming  bladder  of  the  Sturgeon. 


SUB-SECTION  VIII. 

THE  ORDER  OF  PLAGIOSTOMI,  OR  SELACHIANS. 

THIS  Order  and  the  next  comprise  cartilaginous  fishes 
called  Fixed-Gilled  Chondropterygians.  Instead  of  hav- 
ing the  gills  free  on  the  external  edge,  and  opening  at 
their  intervals  into  a  common  chamber,  as  in  all  the 
preceding  fishes,  these  have  them  adhering  by  the  exter- 
nal edge  in  such  a  manner  that  the  water  escapes  through 
as  many  holes  in  the  skin  as  there  are  intervals  between 
the  gills ;  or  else  the  holes  terminate  in  a  common  duct, 
through  which  the  water  passes  out. 

SQUALID^:,  OR  SHARK  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces the  Sharks,  several  species  of  which  are  viviparous, 
and  others  produce  eggs  invested  with  a  yellowish  trans- 
parent horny  substance,  the  angles  of  which  are  pro- 
longed into  horny  tubes. 

The  Genus  Alopias  contains  the  Long-tailed  or  Thresh- 


Thresher  Shark,  A .  vulpes,  Bon. 


er  Shark,  A.  vulpes,  Bon.,  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long,  with 
the  upper  lobe  of  the  tail  about  the  length  of  the  body. 
It  inhabits  the  Atlantic. 

The  Genus  Lamna  has  the  snout  pyramidal,  with  the 
nostrils  under  the  base.     The  Mackerel  Shark,  or  Green- 


PLAGIOSTOMI  :    SQUALID^E. 
Fig.  238. 


357 


Fig  239. 


Head  of  Mackerel  Shark. 


Mackerel  Shark,  L.  punctata,  Storer. 

backed  Shark,  L.  punctata,  Storer,  is 
from  four  to  eight  feet  long,  tail  with  a . 
keel  on  its  side,  and  the  lobes  not  greatly 
unequal. 

The  Genus  Mustelus  has  the  teeth 
blunt,  forming  a  closely  compacted  pave- 
ment in  each  jaw.  The  Dog  Shark,  M. 
cants,  Dekay,  is  from  two  to  four  feet 
long. 

The  Genus  Selachus  has  small,  smooth 
teeth,  the  branchial  apertures  all  before  the  pectorals, 
long,  and  nearly  surrounding  the  neck.     The  Basking 
Shark,  5.  maximus,  Yarrell,  exceeds  thirty  feet  in  length. 
Although  so  large,  it  lacks  the  ferocity  of  other  species. 

The  Genus  Sommosus  contains  the  Sleeper,  or  Nurse 
Shark,  5.  brevipinna,  LeS.,  of  the  eastern  coast  of  North 
America.  It  is  so  sluggish,  that  it  often  allows  itself  to 
be  captured  on  a  cod  line. 

The  Genus  Acanthias  has  a  sharp,  stout  spine  in  front  of 
each  of  the  two 
dorsals.  The 
Dog-Fish,  A. 
americami  s, 
Storer,  is  from 
one  to  three 

Dog-Fish,  A.  americanus,  Storer. 

feet  long.      It 

is  caught  in  great  numbers  for  the  sake  of  its  oil. 


Fig.  240. 


358 


VERTEBRATES:  FISHES. 


The  Genus  Zygcena  has  the  head  flattened  horizontally, 
with  the  sides  much  extended  laterally.     The  Hammer- 
Fig.  241.  Fig.  242. 


Hammer-head,  Z.  malleiis,  Val. 


Head  of  Hammer- 
head. 


head  Shark,  Z.  malleus,  Val.,  attains  the  length  of  twelve 
feet,  and  is  bold  and  ferocious. 

The  Genus  Pristis  has  a  very  long,  depressed  snout, 
armed  on  each  side  with  pointed  spines,  planted  like  teeth. 

Fig.  243- 


Saw- Fish,  P.  antiquorum,  Lath. 

The  Common  Saw-Fish,  P.  antiquorum,  Lath.,  attains 
the  length  of  fifteen  feet. 

Fig.  244. 


Sting  Ray,  Trygon  hastata,  Storer. 


RAY  OR  SKATE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 


PLAGIOSTOMI  I    RAIIDiE.  359 

prises  fishes  with  the  body  very  much  flattened,  the  mouth, 
nostrils,  and  branchial  openings  below,  and  the  dorsals, 
when  present,  upon  the  tail.  The  eggs  are  brown,  cori- 
aceous, and  rectangular,  with  the  angles  extended  into 
points.  Members  of  this  family  are  found  in  all  seas,  and 
more  than  a  hundred  species  are  known,  from  two  to  six 
feet  or  more  in  length. 

The  Genus  Torpedo  has  the  space  between  the  pec- 
torals, head,  and  the  branchiae  filled  on  each  side  with  a 
singular  apparatus  formed  of  little  membranous  tubes 
placed  close  together  p. 

and  subdivided  by  hori- 
zontal partitions  into 
small  cells  filled  with 
mucus,  and  traversed 
by  nerves  proceeding 
from  the  eighth  pair. 
In  this  apparatus  re- 
sides the  electric  or 

.  .  Torpedo,  T.  occidtntalis,  Storer. 

galvanic   power   which 

has  made  the  Torpedo  so  celebrated.     Violent  shocks  are 

received  by  coming  in  contact  with  it  when  alive. 

The  Genus  CepJtaloptera  contains  the  Vampire  of  the 
Ocean,  C.  vampirus,  Mitch.,  which  attains  the  width  of 
sixteen  or  eighteen  feet,  and  ten  feet  or  more  in  length, 
and  weighs  several  tons.  Dekay  states  that  this  monster 
of  the  deep  has  been  known  to  seize  the  cable  of  a  small 
vessel  at  anchor,  and  draw  it  several  miles  with  great 
velocity ! 

SUB-SECTION    IX. 

THE  ORDER  OF  CYCLOSTOMES,  OR  SUCKERS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  chondropterygians  which,  as 
regards  the  skeleton,  are  the  most  imperfect  of  all  verte- 
brates, their  vertebrae  being  simply  cartilaginous  rings 


360 


VERTEBRATES  I   FISHES. 


Lamprey,  P.  americanus,  LeS. 


scarcely  differing  from  one  another.  But  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  features  of  these  animals  is  the  tongue, 
which  moves  forwards  and  backwards  like  a  piston,  en- 
abling them  to  produce  a  vacuum,  and  thus  fix  themselves 
to  solid  bodies  as  well  as  to  fishes. 

PETROMYZONID.E,  OR  LAMPREY  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  the  Lampreys  and  their  allies.     The  Genus 
Petromyzon  has  the   maxillary  ring  armed  with  strong 
teeth.    The  American  Sea  Lamprey,  P.  americanus,  LeS., 
Fig.  246.  is  from  two  to  three  feet  long, 

ending  behind  in  a  sharp  tip. 
It  ascends  rivers,  and  piles 
up  heaps  of  stones,  among 
which  it  lays  its  eggs.  The 
Bluish  Sea  Lamprey,  P.  nigricans,  LeS.,  is  five  to  seven 
inches  long,  and  is  found  attached  to  cod,  haddock,  and 
other  fishes. 

The  Genus  Myxine  contains  low  forms,  which  Linnae- 
us classed  with  worms.  The 
Hag,  M.  limosa,  Girard,  is  from 
six  to  eight  inches  long.  It 
is  common  in  the  waters  about 
Grand  Menan. 

The  Genus  Branchiostoma,  Amphioxus  of  authors,  con- 
tains animal  forms  which 
are  considered  the  lowest 
of  all  vertebrates.  Several 
species  are  known,  one  of 
which  is  found  on  the  At- 
lantic coast  of  the  Southern  States. 

Fossil  fishes  are  found  in  all  the  systems  of  rocks  from 
the  Silurian  upward,  and  their  history,  as  written  by 
Cuvier,  Agassiz,  and  others,  is  full  of  instruction  and  in- 
terest. 


Fig.  247. 


Hag,  M.  limosa,  Girard. 


Fig.  248. 


Lancelot,  Amphioxus,  nat.  size. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  BRANCH  OF  ARTICULATA,  OR  ARTICULATES. 

THE  Branch  of  Articulata  comprises  all  animals  which 
possess  bilateral  symmetry,  and  which  are  divided  trans- 
versely into  rings  or  joints  more  or  less  movable  upon 
each  other,  and  whose  hard  parts  are  external.  The  ali- 
mentary canal  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  body,  and  above 
it  the  dorsal  vessel  or  heart.  The  nervous  system  con- 
sists of  a  sort  of  brain,  which  lies  above  the  oesophagus, 
from  which  two  threads,  passing  around  the  oesophagus, 
extend  beneath  the  alimentary  canal,  along  the  floor  of 
the  general  cavity  of  the  body,  and  connect  at  certain 
distances  small  nervous  centres  or  ganglia,  whence  arise 
the  nerves  of  the  body  and  limbs.  Each  of  these  nervous 
centres  seems  to  fulfil  the  functions  of  a  brain  to  the  sur- 
rounding parts,  and  preserves  their  sensibility  for  a  greater 
or  less  length  of  time  after  the  animal  has  been  divided. 
The  number  of  these  nervous  centres  generally  corre- 
sponds to  the  number  of  the  segments  of  the  body.  Ar- 
ticulates are  divided  into  three  classes,  —  Insects,  Crus- 
taceans, and  Worms. 

SECTION    I. 

THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

THE  Class  of  Insects  comprises  articulates  whose  res- 
piratory apparatus  consists  of  air-holes,  called  stigmata, 
16 


362  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

placed  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  connected  with  a 
system  of  air-tubes,  called  tracheae,  which  branch  through- 
out the  interior  of  the  body  and  carry  air  into  every  part. 
It  includes  three  orders,  —  Insects  proper,  Spiders,  and 
Myriapods. 

Insects  proper  have  the  body  divided  into  three  plainly 
marked  regions,  —  the  head,  chest  or  thorax,  and  hind 
body  or  abdomen.  The  head  is  furnished  with  antennae, 
mouth,  and  eyes ;  to  the  thorax  are  appended  the  legs 
and  wings,  when  these  exist ;  and  the  abdomen  contains 
the  principal  organs  of  digestion  and  other  viscera,  and 
to  it  belong  the  piercer  and  sting  with  which  many  insects 
are  provided.  The  antennae  serve  the  purpose  of  feelers, 
and  are  also  probably  connected  with  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing. The  mouth-parts  are  modified  in  some  groups  for 
chewing  purposes,  in  others  as  sucking  organs.  The 
eyes,  though  apparently  only  two  in  number,  are  really 
compound,  each  consisting  of  many  single  eyes  closely 
united,  and  incapable  of  being  moved  in  their  sockets. 
Many  winged  insects  have  one,  two,  or  three  eyelets  on 
the  crown  of  the  head.  The  legs  are  six  in  number,  and 
are  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the  thorax,  one  pair  to 
each  of  the  three  rings.  The  leg  consists  of  the  hip-joint, 
by  which  the  leg  is  fastened  to  the  body,  the  thigh,  the 
shank,  and  the  foot,  —  the  latter  consisting  generally  of 
five  pieces,  called  tarsi,  connected  end  to  end,  and  armed 
at  the  extremity  with  one  or  two  claws.  The  wings  are 
two  or  four,  or  wanting.  The  piercer  —  more  properly 
ovipositor  —  mentioned  above,  is  in  some  cases  a  flexible 
or  jointed  tube,  capable  of  being  thrust  out  of  the  end  of 
the  body,  and  is  used  for  conducting  eggs  into  holes  where 
they  are  to  be  deposited  ;  in  other  cases  it  consists  of  a 
scabbard  containing  a  central  borer  or  saws,  which  are 
used  in  making  holes  in  which  eggs  are  to  be  placed. 
The  sting  —  a  modified  ovipositor  —  consists  of  a  sheath 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  363 

covering  a  sharp  instrument  for  inflicting  wounds,  and 
connecting  with  it  inside  of  the  body  is  a  sac  of  poison. 
Insects  have  three  nervous  centres,  the  largest  in  the 
head,  a  smaller  in  the  thorax,  and  the  smallest  in  the 
hind  body.  The  breathing-holes,  or  stigmata,  are  gen- 
erally nine  in  number  on  each  side  of  the  body.  The 
heart  consists  of  a  long  tube,  lying  just  under  the  cover- 
ing of  the  back,  having  small  holes  on  each  side  for  the 
admission  of  the  blood,  which  is  yellow  or  colorless,  and 
which  is  prevented  from  escaping  again  by  means  of 
valves  within.  The  heart  is  divided  into  several  cham- 
bers by  transverse  partitions,  in  each  of  which  there  is  a 
valve,  which  allows  the  blood  to  flow  from  the  hinder 
part  forwards,  but  not  backwards.  The  blood  does  not 
circulate  in  arteries  and  veins,  as  in  the  higher  animals, 
but  is  driven  from  the  forward  part  of  the  heart  into  the 
head,  whence  it  returns  to  the  body  and  is  mixed  with 
the  nutritive  fluids  that  filter  through  the  walls  of  the 
viscera,  and,  thus  mingled  and  aerated  by  contact  with 
the  air-tubes,  penetrates  among  the  flesh  and  other  inter- 
nal parts,  and  nourishes  the  body  and  sustains  life. 

Insects  are  produced  from  eggs,  and  are  never  spon- 
taneously generated.  A  very  few  insects  do  not  lay  their 
eggs,  but  retain  them  in  the  body  till  they  are  hatched, 
and  thus  such  insects  are  ovoviviparous.  Others  always 
lay  their  eggs  where  the  young,  as  soon  as  hatched, 
will  find  a  plentiful  supply  of  food.  Most  insects,  in 
passing  from  the  egg  to  the  adult  state,  undergo  great 
changes  of  form  and  habits.  These  changes  are  called 
transformations  or  metamorphoses,  and  are  so  great, 
that  the  same  insect,  at  several  different  ages,  may  be 
mistaken  for  as  many  different  animals.  There  are  three 
more  or  less  distinctly  marked  states  in  the  life  of  an 
Insect,  —  the  larva,  the  pupa  or  chrysalis,  and  the  imago 
or  perfect  state.  In  the  larva  period,  which  is  the  one  of 


364 


ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 
Fig.  249. 


Larva 


Fig.  250. 


Fig.  251. 


Pupa  or  Chrysalis  of  Fig.  249. 


Fig.  252. 


Larva. 


Pupa  of  Fig.  252 


Fig.  254. 


Imago  of  Figs.  252,  253. 


GENERAL   CHARACTE 

infancy,  and  much  the  longest,  InsecSl^tf^lways  wing- 
less, pass  most  of  their  time  in  eating,  and  grow  rapidly, 
and  the  body,  with  some  exceptions,  is  elongated,  worm- 
like,  and  consists  of  fourteen  segments,  one  of  these  being 
the  head.  For  example,  all  caterpillars  are  butterflies 
and  moths  in  the  larva  state,  or  state  of  infancy.  When 
the  larva  has  attained  its  full  growth  as  a  larva,  it  retires 
to  some  concealed  spot,  and,  in  many  cases,  spins  a  silken 
covering,  called  cocoon,  casts  its  skin,  and  presents  itself 
as  a  much  shortened,  oblong,  oval,  Fjg.  255. 

or  conical  body,  and  apparently  life- 
less ;  in  this  form  it  is  called  z.pupa 
or  chrysalis,  and  the  period  during 
which  the  insect  remains  in  this 
state  is  called  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  Cocoon- 

period.  At  the  end  of  this  stage,  which  varies  greatly 
in  duration,  the  insect  again  sheds  its  skin,  and  comes 
forth  fully  grown,  and,  with  few  exceptions,  provided  with 
wings,  and  in  this  state  is  called  a  perfect  insect,  or  imago. 
Thus,  after  insects  enter  upon  the  adult  state,  they  no 
longer  increase  in  size,  but,  having  provided  for  a  con- 
tinuation of  their  kind,  soon  die.  All  insects  which  pass 
through  the  changes  pointed  out  above  are  said  to  under- 
go a  complete  transformation.  But  there  are  some  which, 
although  differing  greatly  in  the  young  from  the  adult 
state,  do  not  pass  through  these  changes ;  but  whose 
larvae  pass  by  more  or  less  insensible  gradations  to  the 
pupa  state,  and  from  the  latter  to  perfect  insects,  all  the 
while  remaining  active.  All  such  are  said  to  undergo 
only  a  partial  transformation.  For  example,  the  grass- 
hopper is  hatched  from  the  egg  as  a  wingless  insect.  As 
it  grows  it  casts  its  skin  from  time  to  time,  becomes 
proportionally  longer,  and  in  due  time  wings  begin  to 
appear  on  the  top  of  the  back.  It  continues  to  eat 
voraciously,  grows  rapidly,  hops  without  aid  of  wings, 


366 


ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 


repeatedly  casts  off  its  skin,  and  appears  after  each  such 
process  with  longer  wings  and  limbs  more  completely 
developed,  until  at  length  it  ceases  to  grow,  and,  shed- 
ding its  skin  for  the  last  time,  it  comes  forth  a  fully  grown 
insect,  an  adult  grasshopper.  The  larvae  and  pupae  of 
those  insects  which  undergo  only  a  partial  transforma- 
tion have  six  legs,  the  same  number  as  adult  insects.  Of 
the  larvae  that  undergo  a  complete  transformation,  some 
have  no  legs,  as  maggots  ;  others  have  six,  a  pair  to  each 
of  the  first  three  segments ;  others  still,  as  caterpillars, 
have  six  true  legs  attached  to  the  first  three  segments, 
and,  besides  these,  several  fleshy  legs,  sometimes  number- 
ing ten  or  more,  placed  beneath  the  abdominal  segment, 
and  known  as  prop-legs.  The  two  sexes  of  insects  differ 
in  size,  the  female  being  larger  than  the  male,  and  'in 
many  cases  the  former  appears  to  have  one  ring  less  than 
the  latter,  since  the  terminal  ring  is  obsolescent,  or  forms 
a  small  portion  of  the  ovipositor. 

Insects  proper  are  divided  into  seven  sub-orders,  and, 
following  the  arrangement  of  A.  S.  Packard,  Jr.,  in  "  Syn- 
thetic Types  of  Insects,"  these  stand  as  follows  :  — 

Hymenoptera,  or  Membranous-winged  Insects,  as  Bees, 
Wasps,  Ichneumons,  Saw-Flies,  Ants,  and  their  allies ; 


Fig.  256. 


Fig.  257. 


Fig.  259. 


Figs.  256-258,  Bees. 


Saw-Fly. 


GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS. 


367 


Lepidoptera,  or  Scaly-winged  Insects,  as  Butterflies  and 
Moths ; 

Fig.  260. 


Butterfly. 

Diptera,  or  Two-winged  Insects,  as  Flies,  Mosquitoes, 
and  their  allies ; 

Fig.  261.  Fig.  262;  Fig.  263. 


Flies. 


Coleoptera,  or  Sheath-winged  Insects,  as  Beetles  in 
their  various  forms ; 

Fig.  264.  Fig.  265. 


Beetles. 


368 


ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 


Hemiptera,  or  Bugs,  Cicadas  or  Harvest-Flies,  and  the 
like; 


Fig.  266. 


Fig.  267. 


Cicada. 


Orthoptera,  or  Straight-winged  Insects,  as  Grasshop- 
pers, Katydids,  Cockroaches,  Crickets,  and  their  allies ; 
and 

Fig.  268. 


Grasshopper. 


Fig.  269. 


Fig.  270. 


Katydid. 


Cockroach. 


HYMENOPTERA.  369 

Neuroptera,  or  Nerve-winged  Insects,  as  Dragon-Flies 
and  their  allies. 

Fig.  271. 


Dragon-Fly. 


SUB-SECTION    I.* 

THE  SUB-ORDER  OF  HYMENOPTERA,   OR  MEMBRANOUS-WINGED 
INSECTS. 

THE  Sub-Order  of  Hymenoptera  comprises  insects  with 
four  membranous  and  more  or  less  transparent  wings, 
the  hind  pair  the  smaller,  and  all  traversed  by  a  few 
irregularly  branching  veins.  These  insects  have  four 
jaws,  the  upper  pair  horny  and  fitted  for  biting  or  cut- 
ting, and  the  lower  pair  longer,  softer,  and  with  the  lower 
lip  adapted  for  collecting  honey.  The  males  have  no 
weapons  except  their  jaws  ;  but  the  females  are  provided 
with  either  a  piercer  or  a  sting  in  the  hind  extremity  of 
the  body.  They  all  undergo  a  complete  transformation 
in  coming  to  maturity ;  but  the  Piercers  differ  from  the 
Stingers  in  their  early  stages.  The  young  of  the  latter 

*  Contrary  to  the  general  plan  of  this  book,  a  Sub-Section  is  devoted  to 
each  Sub-Order  of  Insects  proper.  This  is  done  mainly  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  and  to  give  greater  prominence  to  these  groups,  which,  until 
recently,  have  been  treated  as  Orders. 

16*  x 


37O  ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 

are  soft,  maggot-like,  and  destitute  of  legs.  Some  of  the 
piercers  have  this  form,  but  others  more  nearly  resemble 
grubs  and  caterpillars.  Nearly  all  of  the  larvae  spin  silken 
cocoons,  in  which  they  undergo  their  transformations. 
The  Hymenoptera  are  all  diurnal,  fly  swiftly,  and  in  the 
number  and  variety  of  their  instincts  they  surpass  all 
other  insects.  The  number  of  species  is  very  great. 
None  are  aquatic.  The  families  are  arranged  in  this 
work  according  to  the  classification  proposed  by  A.  S. 
Packard,  Jr.*  It  is  the  reverse,  with  several  alterations, 
of  the  classification  by  Latreille. 

APIARI.E,  Latr.,  OR  BEE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises hymenoptera  which  have  the  body  densely  hirsute, 
the  mouth-parts  lengthened  and  partially  united  to  form 
a  sort  of  proboscis  that  can  be  folded  up  under  the  head, 
and  the  first  joint  of  the  two  hind  legs  often  very  large, 
flattened,  and  fitted  for  collecting  and  carrying  the  pollen 
of  flowers.  With  some  exception  they  are  eminently 
social  in  their  habits,  and  the  species  often  consist  of 
males  or  drones,  females  or  queens,  and  imperfect  females 

Fig.  272-  Fig.  273.  Fig.  274. 


Queen.  Drone.  Worker. 

Hive-Bee,  A .  •mellifica,  Linn. 

or  workers.     The  last  are  smaller  than  the  others,  and 
are  often  improperly  called  neuters. 

The  Genus  Apis  contains  the  Hive-Bees.  The  Com- 
mon Hive-Bee,  A.  mellifica,  Linn.,  is  known  by  every 
one.  In  a  single  community  of  this  bee  there  are  at  least 

*  "How  to  Observe  and  Collect  Insects. "—  Maine  Scientific  Survey 
Report  for  1862. 


HYMENOPTERA:  APIARLE.  371 

two  thousand  males,  fifty  thousand  workers,  and  only  one 
queen.  Of  all  insects  no  other  has  so  excited  the  interest 
and  admiration  of  mankind  in  every  age.  A  volume 
might  well  be  devoted  to  its  intensely  interesting  and  fas- 
cinating history,  as  traced  by  Reaumur,  Huber,  and  others. 
The  Hive-Bee  is  indigenous  to  the  Eastern  hemisphere.* 

The  Genus  Bombits  embraces  the  Humble-Bees,  of 
which  there  are  many  species,  over  forty  belonging  to 
North  America,  and  ten  of  these  to  New  England,  and 
which  are  at  once  known  by  their  large  and  very  hirsute 
bodies.  They  build  nests  in  the  ground  or  under  loose 
stones,  and  their  cells  are  large,  oval,  and  partially  separate. 
There  are  generally  one  hundred  of  these  bees  in  a  com- 
munity, sometimes  four  hundred.  A  single  female  that 
has  survived  the  winter,  founds  a  colony  in  the  spring. 
About  the  middle  of  May  the  workers  begin  to  hatch. 
Late  in  the  summer  there  is  a  brood  of  males  and  females. 

The  Genus  Xylocopha  contains  the  Carpenter-Bees, 
which  are  of  large  size,  and  which  form  a  tube  or  burrow 
a  foot  or  more  in  length,  curved,  and  open  at  each  end,  in 
a  wooden  post  or  stump,  and  deposit  therein  their  eggs, 
arranging  them  in  successive  layers  in  masses  of  pollen. 

The  Genus  Megachile  comprises  the  Leaf  -  Cutters, 
which  cut  circular  pieces  from  leaves,  and  with  these 
make  a  honey-tight  cell,  which  they  build  in  holes  ex- 
cavated in  trees  or  decayed  wood,  or  in  the  earth. 

The  Genus  Osmia  includes  the  Mason-Bees,  which  are 
bluish  or  green,  and  have  a  circular,  much  incurved  ab- 
domen. They  make  their  nests  with  sand  in  crevices. 
Andrena  resembles  the  Hive-Bee,  but  is  smaller,  and  its 
members  burrow  in  the  ground.  Cceleoxys  has  the  abdo- 
men triangular.  Its  species  lay  their  eggs  in  the  nests 
of  other  bees.  Nomada  is  not  hirsute,  and  its  slender 

*  When  not  otherwise  stated,  the  Insects  described  in  this  book  belong 
to  the  United  States. 


3/2  ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 

form  and  gay  colors  remind  us  of  the  wasps.     It  enters 
the  nests  of  Andrena,  and  feeds  upon  its  food. 

VESPARLE,  Latr.,  OR  WASP  FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises hymenoptera  which  fold  their  wings  longitudinally. 
The  Genus  Vespa  contains  those  that  live  in  colonies, 
composed  of  males,  females,  and  workers.  They  con- 
struct complex  nests,  either  under  ground  or  attached  to 
bushes,  trees,  fences,  or  buildings.  These  nests  consist 
of  several  tiers  of  hexagonal  cells,  with  their  mouths 
downward,  supported  by  pedicels,  and  all  surrounded  by 
a  paper-like  substance  gnawed  from  wood  or  the  bark 
of  trees,  and  reduced  to  a  paste  by  the  action  of  the 
jaws.  The  cells  in  a  single  nest  sometimes  number  six- 
teen thousand.  Unlike  the  Hive-Bee,  the  communities 
of  Wasps  are  dissolved  annually  on  the  approach  of  win- 
ter. The  males  die  and  the  females  disperse,  seeking  a 
sheltered  winter  retreat.  Each  female  that  survives  the 
winter  lays  the  foundations  of  a  new  colony  in  the  spring, 
building  a  small  nest  in  which  she  lays  her  eggs,  from 
which  hatch  a  community  composed  entirely  of  workers. 
These  assist  the  parent ;  and  at  length,  in  autumn,  three 
generations  have  been  produced,  the  last  composed. of 
males  and  females,  the  community  has  become  very  large, 
and  the  few-celled  nest  has  grown  to  one  containing 
thousands  of  cells.  The  Hornet,  V.  crabro,  Linn.,  was 
introduced  into  this  country  from  Europe. 

The  Genus  Polistes  contains  wasps  which   build  an 
Fig.  275.  open  nest  of  comparatively 

few  cells,  arranged  in  one 
tier,  and  attached  by  a  short 
pedicel.  The  Genera  Ody- 
nerus  and  Eumenes  comprise 
the  Solitary  Wasps,  which 
build  nests  of  sand,  and  store 
them  with  other  insects. 

Wasp,  P.  pattipes,  Lapel. 


HYMENOPTERA:  FORMICARY.  373 

CRABRONIDJE,  Latr.,  OR  WOOD-WASP  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  hymenoptera  which  have  the  head  cu- 
boidal,  the  thorax  spherical,  somewhat  flattened,  and  a 
flattened  abdomen,  rarely  pedicelled.  They  are  often 
found  resting  on  leaves  in  the  sunshine. 

The  Genus  Crabro  —  Wood-Wasps  proper  —  bores  into 
posts  and  stumps,  where  it  makes  its  nest,  and  stores  it 
with  insects. 

The  Genus  Philanthus  burrows  in  sandy  places,  and 
stores  its  nests  with  hive-bees,  a  single  individual  of  which, 
after  being  stung,  is  deposited  with  an  egg. 

BEMBECID.E,  Latr.,  OR  BEMBEX  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily embraces  hymenoptera  which  have  the  head  large, 
body  flattened,  and  the  labrum  large,  long,  and  triangu- 
lar. The  Genus  Bembex  burrows  in  the  sand,  and  stores 
its  nest  with  diptera  for  the  future  larvae. 

SPHEGID^,  Latr.,  OR  MUD  -  WASP  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  hymenoptera  which  have  long  antennae, 
pedicelled  abdomen,  and  long  hind  legs.  They  are  large, 
black  and  red,  brown  and  red,  or  wholly  blue  or  black. 
They  are  very  active,  and  their  sting  powerful. 

SCOLIET.E,  Latr.,  OR  SCOLIA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  hymenoptera  which  have  the  body  long,  rather 
narrow,  and  hirsute,  the  'abdomen  sessile,  with  two  promi- 
nent terminal  spines  in  the  males,  and  with  short,  spiny, 
fossorial  legs.  They  are  black,  with  bright  yellow  spots 
along  the  sides  of  the  abdomen. 

FORMICARLE,  Latr.,  OR  ANT  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  hymenoptera  which  have  the  head  triangular, 
long  geniculate  antennae,  the  pedicel  which  connects  the 
abdomen  with  the  thorax  in  the  form  of  a  knot  or  scale, 
and  the  legs  slender.  They  live  in  communities,  which 
are  often  large,  and  each  species  consists  of  males,  fe- 
males, and  workers,  the  two  former  furnished  with  long 
and  deciduous  or  loosely  attached  wings,  and  the  last 


374  ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 

destitute  of  wings.  The  workers  have  the  care  of  the 
nest  or  habitation,  and  of  rearing  the  young.  Some 
kinds  of  ants  make  their  nest  in  the  ground,  others  raise 
large  ant-hills,  and  others  live  in  stumps  and  trunks  of 
trees.  The  workers  go  abroad  in  search  of  food,  appear 
to  communicate  with  each  other,  and  to  assist  each  other 
in  their  labors.  They  feed  the  larvae,  take  them  into  the 
sunshine  in  fine  weather,  and  back  again  on  the  approach 
of  bad  weather,  or  at  night,  and  watch  over  them  with 
great  fidelity  and  earnestness.  Most  ant-hill  communi- 
ties are  composed  of  individuals  of  the  same  species  ;  but 
in  some  cases  the  workers  procure  auxiliaries  by  visiting 
the  ant-hills  of  other  species,  and  forcibly  taking  the  larvae 
and  pupae  and  bringing  them  back  to  the  domicil  of  the 
invaders,  where  they  are  tended  and  reared  by  other 
workers  of  their  own  species  which  have  either  undergone 
metamorphosis  there,  or  which  have  been  stolen  from 
their  original  home.  The  male  ants  have  the  body  small, 
and  the  antennae  and  legs  long  and  slender ;  the  females 
are  much  larger,  with  antennae  and  legs  shorter  and 
thicker. 

CHRYSIDID/E,  Latr.,  OR  CHRYSIS  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  hymenoptera  which  are  oblong  and  com- 
pact, the  abdomen  sessile,  and  with  only  three  to  five 
rings  visible  ;  the  remaining  ones  being  drawn  within, 
forming  a  long  and  large  ovipositor,  which  can  be  thrust 
out  like  the  joints  of  a  telescope.  The  abdomen  beneath 
is  concave,  and  can  be  flexed '  upon  the  breast  so  as  to 
make  the  insect  appear  globular.  The  richness  of  the 
colors  of  these  insects  vies  with  that  of  the  humming- 
birds, and  they  are  often  called  Golden  Wasps.  They  are 
constantly  in  motion,  flying  or  running  about  on  walls, 
fences,  and  sand-banks,  in  the  hot  sunshine;  and  their 
antennae  are  in  constant  vibration.  They  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  nests  of  other  hymenoptera,  that  their  young  may 


HYMENOPTERA  :    ICHNEUMONID^E.  375 

feed  upon  the  larvae  of  those  upon  whom  they  have  in- 
truded. 

PROCTOTRUPID^:,  Latr. — This  Family  comprises  a  vast 
number  of  minute  hymenoptera  with  rather  long,  slender 
bodies,  wings  without  nervures,  and  covered  with  minute 
hairs,  and  the  antennae  often  haired  on  the  joints.  Scarce- 
ly any  of  these  insects  exceed  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and 
most  are  very  minute,  hardly  distinguishable  by  the  un- 
trained eye.  They  are  generally  black,  varied  with  brown. 
They  prey  upon  other  small  insects  by  ovipositing  in  their 
eggs  or  in  their  larvae. 

The  Genus  Platygaster  contains  a  species  which  lays 
its  egg  in  those  of  the  canker-worm  moth.  It  is  only  one 
twenty-fifth  of  an  inch  long. 

CHALCIDIM:,  Spinola,  OR  CHALCIS  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  also  comprises  a  great  number  of  parasitic  hymen- 
optera of  small  size,  but  of  brilliant  colors.  Their  anten- 
nae are  geniculate,  and  wings  often  deficient  in  nervures. 
Some  species  prey  upon  plant-lice,  others  lay  their  eggs 
in  the  nests  of  bees  and  wasps,  and  others  consume  the 
larvae  of  the  Hessian  Fly,  and  of  those  insects  which  pro- 
duce galls.  Some  species  are  parasites  on  other  para- 
sites ;  as,  for  instance,  Aphidius  of  the  next  family,  which 
is  parasite  on  the  plant-lice,  has  itself  parasites  which  are 
members  of  this  family. 

ICHNEUMONIM:,  Latr.,  OR  ICHNEUMON  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family,  the  most  extensive  in  numbers  of  the  hymen- 
optera, comprises  insects  with  the  body  long  and  narrow, 
the  antennas  long,  ovipositor  generally  long,  Fig 
and  protected  by  two  threads  or  sheath- 
pieces  of  the  same  length,  and  the  anterior 
pair  of  wings  always  exhibiting  perfect 
cells  upon  their  disk.  The  color  is  gen- 
erally black,  varied  with  red,  yellow,  or 

_.,  ,          1  n    *      i  •  Ichneumon,  /.  svr- 

white.     They  attack  almost  all  other  in-        turaiu,  Say. 


376 


ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 


Fig.  277. 


sects,  depositing  their  eggs  in  the  eggs,  larvae,  or  pupae, 
upon  which  the  young  feed  when  hatched.  Those  genera 
which  have  the  ovipositor  short  deposit  their  eggs  in  ex- 
posed larvae,  while  those  which  are  provided  with  longer 
ones  penetrate  into  holes  and  under  bark ;  and  for  this 
end  some  species  have  the  ovipositors  two  or  three  times 
the  length  of  the  body.  Ichneumons  prey  especially  upon 

the  Lepidoptera,  and  it  is 
thus  that  those  destructive 
insects  are  held  somewhat 
in  check.  When  the  eggs 
are  laid  upon  the  surface 
of  the  larvae,  the  parasites, 
as  soon  as  hatched,  eat 
their  way  into  their  victim. 
When  deposited  inside,  the 
young  ichneumons  feed  on 
the  tissues  of  the  body, 
gradually  consuming  its 
life,  till  the  parasite  goes 
into  the  pupa  state,  and 
the  insect  dies.  There 
may  be  only  one  ichneu- 
within,  or  many  of  them,  which  at 
body  with  little  cocoons 


Ichneumon,  Piinpla  lunator,  Fabr.,  ovipos- 
iting in  holes  bored  by  Tremex. 


mon  thus  feedin 
length  fill  the  inside  of  the 

placed  vertically  next  to  one  another.  Some  ichneu- 
mons do  not  destroy  their  victim  in  the  larva  state,  but 
allow  it  to  become  a  pupa  in  the  body  of  which  they 
undergo  their  transformations,  and  come  forth  perfect 
insects.  Most  of  the  insects  of  this  family  spin  a  silken 
cocoon  ;  and  these  cocoons  are  sometimes  found  in  a 
mass  together  enveloped  in  a  general  covering  of  glossy 
silk. 

EVANIALES,  Latr.  —  This   Family  contains  parasitical 
insects  which  have  the  abdomen  attached  by  a  peduncle, 


HYMENOPTERA:  CYNIPSERA.  377 

nearer  to  the  back  than  usual ;  the  ovipositor  straight 
and  often  exserted ;  hind  legs  longest ;  antennae  filiform 
or  setaceous,  and  thirteen  or  fourteen  jointed. 

CYNIPSERA,  Latr.,  OR  GALL-FLY  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  small  hymenoptera  which  have  the  head 
short  and  broad,  thorax  thick  and  oval,  abdomen  much 
compressed  and  attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  very  short 
peduncle,  and  the  wings  few  veined.  The  females  have 
a  long,  slender  ovipositor,  with  which  they  insert  their 
eggs  into  leaves  and  other  parts  of  plants.  These  punc- 
tures cause  excrescences  called  galls,  the  form  and  solidity 
of  which  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  plant  or 
parts  of  the  plant  that  receive  the  wounds,  and  according 
to  the  species  of  gall-fly  that  make  them.  The  eggs  in- 
troduced into  the  punctures  increase  in  size,  and  at  length 
hatch,  and  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  vegetable  matter  in 
which  they  find  themselves  imbedded.  With  some  ex- 
ceptions, they  undergo  their  transformations  within  the 
galls,  and,  gnawing  through  the  shell,  fly  away.  Some 
species  gnaw  through  at  the  end  of  their  larval  life,  and 
enter  the  ground  to  go  into  the  pupa  state.  There  are 
members  of  this  family  which  produce  no  galls  themselves, 
but  are  parasitic  in  galls  produced  by  others ;  and  they 
are  called  Guest  Gall-Flies. 

The  Genus  Cynips  comprises  those  species  which  attack 
Oaks,  and  Rhodites  those  which  are  confined  to  the  Rose. 
The  nut-galls  of  commerce,  used  in  making  ink,  in  color- 
ing, and  in  medicine,  are  caused  by  the  punctures  of  gall- 
flies on  a  species   of  oak   growing  in  Fig  2?8 
Western  Asia.     The  Rose-bush  Gall-     ~X  T 
Fly,  R.  dicJilocerus,   Harr.,  about  one 
eighth    of   an   inch   long,    is   bred   in 
great  numbers  in  the  woody  galls  or 
long  excrescences  of  the  stems  of  rose- 
bushes.                                                                                Rose-bush  Gall-Fly. 


ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

UROCERATA,  Latr.,  OR  BORING  SAW-FLY  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  comprises  comparatively  rare  hymenoptera 
which  are  among  the  largest  of  the  sub-order.  They 
have  the  body  elongated,  nearly  cylindrical,  and  the  blunt 
abdomen  ending  in  a  horny  point.  From  beneath  the 
abdomen  projects  a  long,  saw-like,  and  powerful  borer, 
with  which  they  bore  holes  into  trees,  in  which  to  lay 
their  eggs.  The  larvae  are  borers  in  the  trunks  of  trees. 

The  Genus  Tremex  contains  T.  cohimba  of  authors, 

which  is  an  inch  or  more 

r  ig.  279. 

in  length  besides  the 
borer,  and  that  an  inch 
long,  projecting  beyond 
the  body.  The  head  and 
thorax  are  rust-colored 
and  black  ;  the  abdo- 
men black,  with  seven 
ochre-yellow  transverse 
bands.  The  Genus  Uro- 
cerus  comprises  those 
which  especially  infest 

Saw-Borer  Fly,  T.  columta  of  authors. 

the  pines. 

TENTHREDINETyE,   Latr.,    OR    SAW-FLY  FAMILY. This 

Family  comprises  hymenoptera  in  which  the  females  have 
an  ovipositor  consisting  of  double  saws  lodged  under  the 
body,  and  covered  by  two  pieces  which  serve  as  a  sheath. 
They  are  sluggish  in  their,  habits,  and  fly  only  in  the 
warmest  days.  Their  larvae  have  from  eighteen  to  twen- 
ty-two legs,  and  are  found  in  communities  on  the  leaves 
of  birch  and  alder,  holding  on  by  their  true  legs,  while 
the  rest  of  the  body  is  curved  curiously  upwards  ;  or  ap- 
pearing like  slugs  on  the  leaves  of  the  pear  and  other 
fruit-trees,  and  those  of  the  rose  ;  while  others  feed  upon 
the  stems  of  plants,  or  roll  up  a  leaf,  or  construct  cases 
of  particles  of  leaves  to  hide  in. 


HYMENOPTERA  :    TENTHREDINETdE.  3/9 

The  Genus  Selandria  embraces  the  Rose  Saw-Fly  and 
its  allies.  The  Rose  Saw-Fly,  5.  rosce,  Harr.,  is  over  three 
twentieths  of  an  inch  long,  the  color  is  deep  shining 
black,  the  wings  smoky,  with  a  brown  spot  near  the 
middle  of  the  first  pair.  This  species  comes  out  of  the 
ground  from  the  last  of  May  to  the  middle  of  June.  The 
females  fly  little,  remaining  most  of  the  day  on  the  rose 
leaves,  and,  when  touched,  draw  up  their  legs  and  fall. 
The  female  thrusts  her  saws  obliquely  into  the  skin  of 
the  leaf,  and  deposits  in  each  incision  a  single  egg,  which 
hatches  in  about  ten  days.  The  larvae  are  soft,  head  yel- 
lowish, with  a  black  dot  on  each  side  of  its  body,  green 
above  and  yellowish  below.  These  gelatinous  larvae  eat 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  in  large  patches,  leaving  the 
veins  and  skin  beneath  untouched.  They  cast  their  skin 
several  times,  and  after  the  last  moulting  are  opaque  yel- 
lowish. At  length  they  go  into  the  ground  an  inch  or 
more,  make  an  oval  cell,  where  they  go  through  their 
transformation,  and  come  out  of  the  ground  early  in  Au- 
gust and  lay  eggs  for  a  second  brood,  which  in  turn  per- 
form their  work  of  destruction,  go  into  the  ground  in 
autumn,  and  appear  in  the  perfect  form  the  following 
spring  and  summer. 

The  Vine  Saw-Fly,  5.  vitis,  Harr.,  is  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  long,  jet  black,  except  the  upper  side, of  the 
thorax,  which  is  red,  and  the  fore  legs  and  under  side  of 
the  others,  which  are  light.  This  fly  rises  from  the 
ground  in  spring,  and  lays  its  eggs  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  terminal  leaves  of  the  vine.  In  July  the  larvae  of  vari- 
ous sizes  are  seen  in  swarms  beneath  the  leaves,  feeding 
side  by  side.  They  begin  at  the  edges,  eat  the  whole 
leaf,  then  take  another,  and  thus  proceed  down  the  branch. 
When  full  grown  they  are  about  five  eighths  of  an  inch 
long,  head  and  tip  of  the  tail  black,  body  light  green 
above,  with  two  transverse  rows  of  minute  black  dots 


380  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

across  each  ring ;  under  surface  yellowish.  After  the 
last  moulting  they  become  yellow,  burrow  in  the  ground, 
form  small  oval  cells  lined  with  silk,  and  in  about  a  fort- 
night come  forth  in  the  perfect  form  and  lay  their  eggs 
for  a  second  brood,  which  are  not  transformed  to  flies 
until  the  next  spring. 

The  Genus  Lophyms  contains  the  Fir-tree   Saw-Fly, 
Fig.  280.  L,  abietis,  Harr.,  which  feeds 

upon  the  fir-tree.  The  male 
is  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch, 
and  the  female  about  three 
tenths  of  an  inch  long. 

The  Genus  Cimbex  contains 

Saw-Fly  (enlarged),  L.  'alietis,  Harr.       large  SaW-FHcS.    The  Elm  SaW- 

Fly,  C.  ulmij  Peck,  is  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch 
long,  head  and  thorax  shining  black,  abdomen  steel- 
blue,  with  three  or  four  oval  yellowish  spots  on  each 
side ;  legs  blue  black,  feet  yellow.  The  male  has  the 
body  longer,  narrower,  and  no  spots  on  the  sides,  and 
appears  so  different  from  the  female,  that  it  has  been 
described  as  distinct.  These  flies  appear  in  the  latter  part 
of  May  and  June,  and  the  female  lays  her  eggs  on  the 
elm,  upon  the  leaves  of  which  the  larvae  feed.  These  come 
to  their  growth  in  August,  and  then  are  an  inch  and  a 
half  to  two  inches  long,  thick,  and  covered  by  a  firm  skin, 
with  numerous  transverse  wrinkles ;  color  pale  greenish- 
yellow,  with  a  black  stripe  of  two  black  lines  from  the 
head  to  the  tail,  and  black  spiracles.  When  at  rest,  they 
lie  upon  the  side,  and  look  somewhat  like  a,  snail-shell. 
It  makes  an  oblong  cocoon,  very  closely  woven,  and 
tough,  about  an  inch  long,  in  which  it  remains  unchanged, 
under  leaves  and  rubbish,  till  the  next  spring. 


LEPIDOPTERA.  381 

SUB-SECTION   II. 

THE  SUB-ORDER  OF  LEPIDOPTERA,  OR  BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS. 

THE  Sub-Order  of  Lepidoptera  comprises  insects  which 
have  four  wings  covered  on  both  sides  with  scales  that 
are  removed  by  the  slightest  touch ;  a  tongue  consisting 
of  two  tubular  threads  placed  side  by  side  and  forming  a 
channel  by  their  junction,  and  thus  adapted  for  suction, 
and,  when  not  in  use,  rolled  up  like  a  watch-spring  be- 
neath the  head,  and  more  or  less  concealed  on  each  side 
by  a  little  palpus  or  feeler ;  six  legs,  the  first  pair  being 
very  short ;  and  feet  which  are  five-jointed  and  termi- 
nated by  a  pair  of  claws.  They  undergo  a  complete 
transformation.  In  the  larva  state  they  are  called  cater- 
pillars, and  have  from  ten  to  sixteen  legs.  The  first  three 
pairs  of  legs  are  covered  with  a  shelly  skin,  are  jointed 
and  tapering,  and  the  extremity  is  armed  with  a  little 
claw.  The  remaining  ones  —  prop-legs  —  are  thick, 
fleshy,  without  joints,  elastic,  and  at  the  extremity  are 
surrounded  by  a  ring  of  minute  hooks.  The  jaws  are 
placed  at  the  sides  of  the  mouth,  move  laterally,  and  are 
quite  strong.  The  middle  of  the  lower  lip  contains  a 
conical  tube,  from  which  the  larva  spins  a  silken  thread. 
The  material  from  which  the  silk  is  made  is  contained  in 
two  long,  slender  bags  in  the  interior  of  the  body,  and 
ending  in  the  spinning-tube  just  mentioned.  This  mate- 
rial is  a  viscid  fluid,  which,  as  it  flows  from  the  tube 
and  comes  to  the  air,  hardens.  Some  caterpillars  make 
but  little  silk ;  others  produce  it  in  great  abundance. 
Most  of  them  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  plants.  Some 
eat  buds,  blossoms,  seeds,  and  roots  ;  others  eat  the  solid 
wood  ;  others  devour  fabrics  and  furs  ;  and  others  leath- 
er, meat,  lard,  and  wax.  Some  species  are  gregarious; 
others  are  solitary  in  their  habits.  In  coming  to  their 


382  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

growth  as  larvae,  caterpillars  usually  change  their  skins 
four  times.  At  length  they  cease  eating,  and  most  of 
them  spin  a  silky  covering  for  themselves,  called  a  co- 
coon ;  some  suspend  themselves  in  various  ways  without 
making  a  cocoon  ;  and  others  enter  the  ground.  In 
all  these  situations  the  larva  soon  bursts  open  the  skin 
upon  the  back,  sloughs  it,  and  thus  passes  into  the 
pupa  or  chrysalis  state,  when,  at  first  sight,  it  appears 
destitute  of  head  and  locomotive  appendages ;  but  closer 
examination  reveals  traces  of  head,  tongue,  antennas, 
wings,  and  legs.  In  due  time  the  pupa-skin  is  rent 
on  the  back,  and  the  winged  insect  emerges,  soft  and 
weak,  and  the  wings  shrivelled  ;  but  soon  the  superflu- 
ous moisture  of  the  body  evaporates,  the  wings  expand 
to  their  full  dimensions,  the  limbs  acquire  firmness,  and 
the  perfect  insect  goes  forth  to  feed  upon  water  and  the 
sweet  fluids  of  flowers,  which  constitute  its  only  food.  But- 
terflies are  at  once  distinguished  from  all  the  rest  of  the 
sub-order  by  their  knobbed  antennae,  erect  wings  when 
at.  rest,  and  diurnal  habits.  Their  caterpillars  do  not 
spin  cocoons,  but  the  pupae  are  bare.  Moths  have  the 
antennae  variously  formed,  and  are  mainly  nocturnal  in 
their  habits.  The  caterpillars  of  many  of  them  spin 
cocoons. 

The  following  families  are  arranged  according  to  La- 
treille,  with  some  modifications. 

PAPILIONIM:,  Latr.,  OR  PAPILIO  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily embraces  lepidoptera  which  are  the  largest  of  our 
butterflies,  and  which  generally  have  their  hind  wings 
extended  into  a  tail-like  appendage. 

The  Genus  Papilio  contains  the  Papilios  proper.  The 
Asterias  Butterfly,  P.  asterias,  Drury,  expands  three  and 
a  half  to  four  inches,  and  is  black,  with  a  double  row  of 
yellow  dots  upon  the  back,  a  broad  band  of  yellow  spots 
across  the  wings,  a  row  of  yellow  spots  near  the  hind 


LEPIDOPTERA  I    PAPILIONID^E. 


383 


margin,  seven  blue  spots  on  the  hind  wings  between  the 
yellow  band  and  outer  row  of  yellow  spots,  and  an  eye- 
like  spot  of  orange,  with  a  black  centre,  near  their  hind 
angle.  The  female  differs  in  having  only  few  yellow  spots 

Fig.  282. 


Fig.  281. 


Larva  of  P.  asterias,  Drury. 


Pupa  of  P.  asterias,  Drury. 


Fig.  283. 


Asterias  Butterfly,  P.  astertas,  Drury. 

on  the  upper  surface.  The  caterpillar  feeds  upon  parsley, 
parsnips,  carrots,  and  celery,  and,  when  touched,  protrudes 
from  a  slit  in  the  first  segment  a  pair  of  soft,  orange-col- 
ored, V-shaped  organs,  which  diffuse  a  disagreeable  odor. 
The  Turnus  Butterfly,  P.  turuus,  Linn.,  expands  from 
four  and  a  half  to  five  inches,  and  is  of  a  beautiful  yellow 
color,  marked  with  black,  and  the  hind  wings  have  an 
orange-red  spot  near  their  hind  angle.  The  larva  feeds 
upon  the  leaves  of  the  apple  and  wild-cherry  trees,  fold- 


384 


ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 


ing  them  so  as  to  make  a  sort  of  case  for  itself.  It  is 
about  two  inches  long,  green  above,  with  rows  of  blue 
dots,  a  yellow  eye-spot  with  a  black  centre  on  each  side 
of  the  third  segment,  and  a  yellow  and  black  band  across 
the  fourth  segment.  It  becomes  a  chrysalis  early  in 
August,  and  comes  out  a  butterfly  the  next  summer. 


Turnns  Butterfly,  P.  turnus,  Linn. 

PIERID^E,  Boisd.,  WHITE,  OR  SULPHUR  BUTTERFLY 
FAMILY.  —  This  Family  comprises  butterflies  which  have 
the  hind  wings  rounded,  and  also  forming  a  gutter  for 
the  reception  of  the  abdomen.  Their  prevailing  colors 
are  white,  orange,  and  sulphur. 

The  Genus  Pieris  contains  the  White  Butterfly,  P.  ole- 
racea,  Boisd.,  seen  in  May  and  June,  and  again  in  July 
and  August.  It  expands  about  two  inches. 

The  Genus  Co  lias  contains  the  Common  Yellow  But- 
terfly, C.  philodice,  Godart,  seen  in  great  numbers  in  fields 
and  by  road-sides.  The  caterpillars,  found  upon  clover 


LEPIDOPTERA:  NYMPHALIM:.  385 

and  allied  plants,  are  green,  slightly  downy,  and  attain 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  then  suspend  themselves 
by  a  loop  from  the  stem  of  a  plant,  and  form  a  straw- 
colored  chrysalis. 

NYMPHALID.E,  Boisd.,  OR  NYMPHALIS  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  butterflies  which  are  remarkable  for 
their  beautiful  colors  and  splendid  ornamentation.  The 
fore  legs  are  rudimental. 

The  Genus  Limenitis  has  the  knob  of  the  antennae 
long,  straight,  and  slender,  the  edges  of  the  wings,  espe- 
cially the  hind  ones, -scalloped,  but  not  tailed.  The  Mi- 
sippus  Butterfly,  L.  misippiis,  Harr.,  expands  from  three 

Fig.  285. 


Butterfly,  L.  misippus,  Godart. 

to  three  and  a  half  inches,  and  is  tawny  yellow  above,  paler 
below,  the  wings  veined  with  black  and  surrounded  by  a 
broad  black  border,  spotted  with  white,  and  there  is  a 
triangular  patch  spotted  with  white  near  the  tips  of  the 
fore  wings,  and  a  curved  black  band  on  the  hind  ones. 
The  caterpillar  lives  on  the  willow  and  poplar.  The  but- 
terfly appears  in  June  and  September. 

The  Arthemis  Butterfly,  L.  arthemis,  Boisd.  &  LeC., 

expands  about  three  inches,  and  is  at  once  distinguished 

by  the  broad  white,  curved  band,  beginning  just  beyond 

the  middle  of  the  front  edge  of  the  fore  wings,  and  cross- 

17  Y 


386  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

ing  both  wings.  The  male  has  a  row  of  orange-colored 
spots  on  the  hind  wings,  next  to  the  border. 

The  Genus  Danais  has  the  knob  of  the  antennae  long 
and  curved.  The  Archippus  Butterfly,  D.  erippus,  Doubl., 
expands  from  three  and  three  fourths  to  four  and  a  half 
inches ;  the  wings  are  tawny  orange  above,  nankin-yellow 
beneath,  veins  black,  and  have  a  black  border,  spotted 
with  white.  The  males  have  an  elevated  black  spot  near 
the  middle  of  the  hind  wings.  It  flies  in  the  latter  part 
of  summer.  The  caterpillar  lives  upon  the  silk-weed.* 

The  Genus  Argynnis  has  the  wings  without  indenta- 
tions, and  the  hind  ones  are  generally  ornamented  beneath 
with  silvery  or  pearly  spots.  The  Idalia  Butterfly,  A. 
idalia,  Godt.,. expands  about  three  and  a  half  inches,  and 
the  fore  wings  are  deep  tawny-orange,  spotted  with  black, 
and  with  a  broad  black  hind  border,  around  which,  in  the 
female,  there  is  a  row  of  white  spots ;  hind  wings  bluish- 
black  above,  with  two  rows  of  spots  behind,  both  of  which 
are  of  cream  color  in  the  female ;  but  in  the  males  the 
spots  of  the  outer  row  are  deep  tawny-orange.  The 
fringes  of  all  the  wings  are  spotted  with  white;  all  have 
a  row  of  pearly-white  crescents  beneath,  and  the  under 
surface  of  the  hind  wings  have  each  seventeen  more 
white  spots.  It  flies  in  July  and  August. 

The  Aphrodite  Butterfly,  A.  aphrodite,  Fabr.,  expands 
two  and  three  fourths  to  three  and  a  half  inches,  the 

*  When  ready  to  go  into  the  chrysalis  state,  the  caterpillar  of  this  species, 
and  others  of  its  family,  spins  a  tuft  of  silk  on  the  under  surface  of  a  piece  of 
timber,  board,  branch,  or  leaf,  and,  fixing  the  hooks  of  its  hind  feet  in  the 
threads,  suspends  itself,  and  curves  the  forward  part  of  the  body  upward. 
In  a  short  time  the  skin  is  rent  on  the  back,  and  the  chrysalis  appears 
through  the  fissure.  The  chrysalis  now  performs  a  feat  which  seems  in- 
credible until  it  is  witnessed  ;  for  it  has  to  release  itself  entirely  from  the 
caterpillar-skin,  which  has  been  worked  back  to  its  hind  extremity,  and  to 
fasten  itself  to  the  silken  tuft  by  its  hooks  at  the  tail.  By  means  of  two  of 
the  movable  rings  near  the  middle  of  the  body,  the  chrysalis  seizes  a  portion 
of  the  empty  caterpillar-skin,  and,  thus  supporting  itself,  withdraws  wholly 


LEPIDOPTERA:  NYMPHALIM:.  387 

wings  tawny  in  the  male,  ochre-yellow  in  the  female, 
both  with  a  black  line  near  the  hind  margins,  within 
which  is  a  row  of  black  crescents,  and  within  the  latter 
a  row  of  round  black  spots,  the  rest  of  the  surface  having 
irregular  black  spots.  Under  the  tips  of  the  fore  wings 
are  seven  or  eight  silvery  spots,  and  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  hind  wings  are  more  than  twenty  large  silvery- 
white  spots.  It  flies  in  July  and  August. 

The  Bellona  Butterfly,  A.  bellona,  Godt,  expands  an 
inch  and  three  quarters,  and  the  wings  are  tawny,  with 
two  rows  of  black  spots  around  the  hind  margins,  and 
at  a  distance  from  these  is  a  row  of  round  black  spots ; 
basal  half  of  the  wing  with  blackish  blotches. 

The  Myrina  Butterfly,  A.  myrina,  Godt,  expands  an 
inch  and  three  quarters  to  nearly  two  inches,  the  wings 
tawny,  bordered  above  with  black,  with  a  row  of  black 
crescents  adjoining  the  border,  and  a  row  of  round  black 
spots  at  a  distance  from  it ;  basal  half  of  the  wings  with 
irregular  black  spots.  It  flies  in  May  and  June,  and 
again  in  August  and  September. 

The  Genus  Melitcea  resembles  Argynnis,  but  has  the 
under  surface  of  the  wings  marked  with  various  colors, 
not  silvery  spots,  and  the  caterpillars  are  covered  with 
blunt  tubercles,  beset  with  very  short,  stiff  bristles. 

The  Phaeton  Butterfly,  M.  phaeton,  Boisd.  &  LeC,  ex- 
pands two  inches  or  more,  and  the  wings  are  black,  with 

from  the  skin.  The  skin  is  now  suspended  to  the  tuft,  and  the  chrysalis  to 
the  skin  ;  but  the  chrysalis  is  some  distance  from  the  tuft  of  silk,  to  which,  it 
must  climb  in  order  to  cling  to  it  by  the  hooks  of  its  tail.  To  accomplish 
this,  it  extends  the  rings  of  the  body  as  much  as  possible,  then,  bending 
together  two  of  them  above  those  by  which  it  is  clinging  to  the  dry  skin,  it 
catches  hold  of  the  skin  higher  up,  at  the  same  time  letting  go  below  ;  and 
by  repeating  this  process  with  different  rings  in  succession,  at  length  it 
reaches  the  tuft  of  silk,  and  fixes  its  hooks  therein.  Both  the  chrysalis 
and  the  diy  caterpillar-skin  are  now  suspended  from  the  tuft ;  but  the  former 
by  its  motion  soon  dislodges  the  latter,  and  is  thus  left  suspended  alone. 
The  whole  of  this  operation  is  performed  in  a  very  few  minutes. 


388  ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 

a  row  of  orange  crescents  around  the  hind  margin,  within 
which  are  rows  of  cream-colored  spots,  and  there  are  two 
orange-red  spots  on  the  fore  wings.  It  flies  in  June. 

The  Tharos  Butterfly,  M.  tharos,  Boisd.  &  LeC,  expands 
about  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  the  wings  are  tawny  orange 
above,  with  a  broad  black  hind  border,  bearing  a  row  of 
tawny  crescents,  and  before  these  a  row  of  round  black 
spots  ;  the  basal  half  of  the  wings  is  marked  with  black, 
running  together  like  net-work  ;  and  on  the  fore  wings 
is  a  large  black  spot.  It  flies  most  of  the  summer. 

The  Genus  Pyrameis,  Cynthia  as  restricted  by  Harris, 
has  the  wings  more  or  less  scalloped,  but  not  indented 
or  tailed.  The  larvae  are  solitary. 

The  Thistle  Butterfly,  P.  cardui,  Doubl.,  expands  two 
and  a  half  inches  or  more,  and  the  wings  are  tawny 
above,  with  a  rosy  tinge,  and  spotted  with  black  and 
white  ;  hind  wings  marbled  beneath,  and  with  five  eye- 
like  spots  near  the  hind  margin,  and  a  triangular  white 
spot  in  the  middle.  The  caterpillars  are  found  on  thistles. 
It  flies  from  May  to  the  end  of  summer. 

Hunter's  Butterfly,  P.  Huntera,  Doubl.,  expands  about 
two  and  a  half  inches,  and  the  wings  are  tawny  above, 
variegated  and  spotted  with  black  and  white  ;  hind  wings 
marbled  beneath,  and  with  two  large  eye-like  spots  near 
the  hind  margin.  It  flies  in  the  latter  part  of  summer 
and  in  early  autumn. 

The  Atlanta  Butterfly,  P.  atlanta,  Hubn.,  expands  two 
and  a  quarter  to  three  inches,  and  the  wings  are  black 
above,  with  an  orange-red  band  across  the  middle  of  the 
forward  ones,  and  white  spots  near  their  tips ;  hind  wings 
with  a  marginal  red  band  bearing  a  row  of  black  dots, 
the  two  nearest  the  hind  angle  with  a  blue  centre.  Har- 
ris says  it  was  probably  introduced  from  Europe.  In  the 
Caterpillar  state  it  feeds  upon  the  nettle. 

The  Genus  Junonia  contains  the  Lavinia  Butterfly, 


LEPIDOPTERA  J  NYMPHALID^E.  389 

y.  ceenia,  Hiibn.,  which  expands  from  two  to  two  and  a 
half  inches ;  the  wings  are  dark  brown  above,  each  with 
a  large  and  a  small  eye-like  spot  on  both  sides  ;  the 
fore  wings  have  two  orange-red  spots  near  the  middle  of 
the  front  margin,  and  a  whitish  band  enclosing  the  eye- 
like  spots,  and  the  hind  wings  a  reddish  band  near  their 
hind  margin.  It  is  common  in  the  Southern  States  all 
summer ;  rarer  northward 

The  Genus  Vanessa  has  the  wings  tailed  or  jagged 
on  their  hind  edges.  The  caterpillars  are  armed  with 
branching  spines,  and  live  in  company. 

The  Antiopa  Butterfly,  V.  antiopa,  Ochs.,  expands  about 
three  and  a  half  inches,  and  the  wings  are  purplish  brown 
above,  with  a  broad  buff-yellow  margin,  near  the  inner 
edge  of  which  is  a  row  .of  blue  spots.  This  butterfly 
first  appears  in  midsummer,  and  a  second  brood  appears 
in  autumn,  and  some  of  the  latter  may  be  found  either 
flying  or  in  sheltered  places  throughout  the  winter.  The 
caterpillars  are  spiny,  black,  minutely  dotted  with  white, 
with  a  row  of  eight  dark  brick-red  spots  on  the  back. 

The  White  J-Butterfly,  V.  j-album,  Boisd.  &  LeC,  ex- 
pands two  and  a  half  to  three  inches,  and  has  on  the 
under  side  of  the  hind  wings  a  j -shaped,  silvery  white 
mark. 

Milbert's  Butterfly,  V.  Milberti,  Godart,  expands  over 
two  inches,  and  is  black  above,  with  a  broad  orange-red 
band  near  the  hind  margin  of  all  the  wings,  behind  which, 
on  the  hind  wings,  there  is  a  row  of  blue  crescents,  and 
on  the  fore  wings  a  white  spot  near  the  tips,  and  two 
orange-red  spots  near  the  middle  of  the  front  margin. 

The  Genus  Grapta  has  the  wings  more  incised  than 
Vanessa.  The  Semicolon  Butterfly,  G.  interrogationis, 
Doubl.,  expands  two  and  a  half  inches  or  more,  and  is 
distinguished  by  the  pale  golden  semicolon  on  the  mid- 
dle of  the  under  surface  of  the  hind  wings. 


390 


ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 


The  Comma  Butterfly,  G.  comma,  Doubl,  expands  over 
two  inches,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  silvery-white 
comma  on  the  under  surface  of  the  hind  wings. 

The  Progne  Butterfly,  G.  c-argenteum,  Kirby,  expands 
about  two  inches,  and  has  an  angular  silvery  mark  on  the 
middle  of  the  under  surface  of  the  hind  wings. 

SATYRID.E,  Boisd,y  OR  SATYRUS  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  butterflies  which  have  the  wings  broad  and 
more  or  less  rounded.     The  larvae  are  pale  green. 
The  Genus  Satyrus,Hipparchia,  Fabr.,  —  Hipparchians, 
Fig.  286.  —  nas  tne  wings  of  a  most  delicate 

brown  color,  with  eye -like  spots 
near  the  outer  margins.  The  spe- 
cies expand  two  or  three  inches. 

The  Genus  Chionobas  contains 
species  which  are  restricted  to  Arc- 
tic and  alpine  regions. 

The  Mountain  Butterfly,  C.  scmi- 
dea,  Edw.,  is  found  as  yet  only  on 
Mount  Washington,  in  New  Hamp- 
shire. 

LYC^ENID^E,  Leach,  OR  AZURE-BUTTERFLY  FAMILY.— 
This  Family  embraces  very  small  and  very  beautiful 
butterflies,  which,  in  the  caterpillar  state,  much  resemble 
wood-lice,  and  whose  legs  are  so  short  that  they  seem  to 
glide  over  surfaces,  and  whose  chrysalids  are  short,  thick, 
with  the  under  side  flat  and  the  upper  very  convex. 

The  Genus  Chrysophanus  contains  the  Copper  Butter- 
flies. The  American  Copper  Butterfly,  C.  amcricana, 
D'Urban,  expands  over  one  inch ;  the  fore  wings  are  cop- 
pery-red above,  with  about  eight  square  black  spots,  and 
the  hind  margins  bordered  with  dusky  brown  ;  hind  wings 
with  a  few  small  black  spots  on  the  middle,  and  a  cop- 
pery-red band  on  the  hind  margin.  It  flies  all  summer. 
The  caterpillar  is  green,  and  lives  upon  sorrel. 


Mt.  Butterfly,  C. '  semidea,  Ed. 


LEPIDOPTERA  :   HESPERID^.  39  1 

The  Genus  Lycana  contains  the  Azure  Butterflies, 
small  and  delicate  species,  which  expand  about  an  inch, 
and  which  are  generally  of  some  shade  of  blue  or  brown 
above,  and  grayish  dotted  with  black  below. 

The  Genus  Thecla  has  generally  two  thread-like  tails 
on  each  hind  wing.  In  some  cases  the  hind  wings  are 
merely  notched.  The  species  expand  over  an  inch. 

HESPERID.E,  Latr.y  OR  SKIPPER  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  butterflies  which  have  the  body  short  and 
thick,  head  large,  eyes  prominent,  anten-  Fig.  287. 

nae  short,  with  the  knob  curved  like  a 
hook  or  bent  to  one  side,  legs  six,  and 
the  four  hindmost  shanks  armed  with 
two  pairs  of  spurs.  Skippers  fly  with  a 


jerking  motion,  and  hence  their  name.  skipper, 
They  are  generally  of  a  rich  brown,  marked  with  yellow 
spots.  The  species  are  quite  numerous,  and  expand  from 
one  inch  and  a  half  to  two  inches  and  a  half. 

SPHINGID.E,  Latr.,  OR  HAWK-MOTH  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  very  large  lepidoptera  which  have  the 
antennas  thickened  in  the  middle  and  more  or  less  taper- 
ing at  each  end,  and  generally  hooked  at  the  tip.  The 
wings  are  narrow  in  proportion  to  their  length,  and  fas- 
tened together  by  a  bunch  of  stiff  hairs  situated  on  the 
shoulder  of  -each  hind  wing,  which  connect  with  a  hook 
on  the  under  side  of  each  fore  wing  ;  and  when  at  rest, 
the  wings  are  more  or  less  inclined  like  a  roof.  They  fly 
with  great  power  and  rapidity,  and,  with  some  exceptions, 
frequent  flowers  in  the  morning  and  evening  twilight,  and 
are  easily  mistaken  for  humming-birds.  The  caterpillars 
are  remarkable  for  their  great  size,  general  appearance, 
and  curious  attitudes.  Supporting  themselves  on  their 
hind  legs,  they  elevate  the  forward  part  of  the  body,  and 
remain  for  hours  in  this  sphinx-like  position,  as  in  Fig.  288. 
They  have  sixteen  legs,  in  pairs  beneath  the  first,  second, 


392 


ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 


LEPIDOPTERA  :    SPHINGID 

third,  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  ninth, 
with  some  exceptions,  they  have 
cle  on  the  top  of  the  last  segment. 

The  Genus  Sphinx,  as  formerly  li 
Sphinges  proper,  which  by  modern  write 
to  several  different  genera. 

The  Five-spotted  Sphinx,  5.  qumquemaculatus  of  au- 
thors, expands  about  five  inches,  and  is  gray,  variegated 
with  blackish,  and  on  each  side  of  the  body  there  are  five 
round  orange-colored  spots  encircled  by  black.  Its  tongue 
is  five  or  six  inches  long  when  fully  unrolled,  but  when 
not  in  -use  is  coiled  up  nearly  out  of  sight.  The  larva  is 
green,  feeds  upon  the  potato-vine,  and  attains  the  .length 
of  three  inches.  At  the  close  of  summer  it  enters  the 
ground,  becomes  a  bright  brown  chrysalis,  with  a  long, 
slender  tongue-case  bent  over  from  the  head  to  the  breast, 
like  a  pitcher-handle.  The  Carolina  Sphinx,  5.  Carolina, 
Linn.,  closely  resembles  the  preceding  one. 

The  Genus  Ceratomia  has  four  short,  fleshy  horns  on 
the  thorax  of  the  larva.  The  Four-horned  Sphinx,  C. 
quadricornis,  Harr.,  expands  about  five  inches,  and  the 
wings  are  light  brown,  variegated  with  dark  brown  and 
white;  hind  body  marked  with  five  longitudinal  brown 
lines.  The  caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  elm,  attains  the 
length  of  three  inches  and  a  half,  has  four  horns  on  the 
thorax,  and  a  stiff  spine  at  the  hind  extremity. 

The  Genus  Philampelus  embraces  sphinges  whose  larvae 
feed  upon  the  grape-vine.  The  Satellitia  Hawk-Moth,  P. 
satellitia,  Linn.,  expands  four  or  five  inches,  and  is  light 
olive,  variegated  with  patches  of  darker. 

The  Achemon,  P.  achemon,  Drury,  expands  three  or 
four  inches,  and  is  reddish  ash,  with  two  triangular  patches 
of  deep  brown  on  the  thorax,  two  square  ones  on  each 
fore  wing,  and  the  hind  wings  pink,  with  a  broad  ashy 
border. 

17* 


394  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

The  Genus  Ellema  is  smaller  than  the  preceding.  E. 
Harrisii,  Clemens,  flies  the  last  of  June. 

The  Genus  Smerinthus  has  the  wings  scalloped  or 
notched,  and  the  tongue  very  short.  The  caterpillars 
are  rough,  with  a  stout  thorn  on  the  tail. 

The  Blind  Smerinthus,  S.  exccecata  of  authors,  expands 
about  two  and  a  half  inches,  is  fawn-colored,  clouded  with 
brown,  except  the  hind  wings,  which  are  rose  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  have  a  black  eye-spot  with  a  blue  centre. 

Fig.  291.  The  Genus  Sesia 

contains  the  Clear- 
winged  Sphinges, 
which  are  distin- 
guished by  their 
transparent  wings 
and  broad  tails. 
They  hover  over 
flowers  like  hum- 
ming-birds in  the 
daytime,  in  July  and  August. 

./EGERID/E,  Steph. — This  Family  comprises  moths  which 
have  the  body  large,  wings  mainly  transparent,  and,  in  a 
state  of  repose,  about  half  erect.  The  larvae  bore  the 
stems  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

The  Genus  Trockilium  is  hornet-like  in  appearance, 
with  the  antennae  thickened  nearly  to  the  end,  which 
is  curved  but  not  hooked.  The  Peach-tree  Borer,  T. 
exitiosa,  Say,  expands  about  an  inch  and  a  half,  the  fore 
wings  are  blue  and  opaque,  the  hind  ones  transparent, 
Fig.  292.  anci  the  middle  of  the  abdomen  has  a 

broad  orange-colored  belt.  The  male  has 
all  the  wings  transparent,  bordered  and 
veined  with  steel-blue,  which  is  the  gen- 
eral color  of  the  body  in  both  sexes.  The 
Peach-tree  Borer,  T.  female  deposits  her  eggs  in  summer  on  the 

exitiosa,  Say. 


LEPIDOPTERA  :    ZYGJENIDJE.  395 

trunk  of  the  tree,  near  the  roots ;  when  hatched,  the 
borers  penetrate  and  devour  the  inner  bark  and  sap- 
wood.  When  about  a  year  old  they  make  their  cocoon, 
become  chrysalids,  and  from  June  to  October  come  forth 
in  the  perfect  state.  It  also  attacks  the  cherry. 

The  Currant-bush  yEgerian,  T.  tipuliforme,  Harr.,  ex- 
pands about  three  fourths  of  an  inch,  wings  transparent, 
veined,  fringed  with  black,  and  with  a  copper-tinged  band 
across  the  tips  of  the  first  pair ;  body  blue.  The  eggs 
are  laid  singly  near  the  buds  of  the  currant-bush,  and, 
when  hatched,  the  caterpillar  penetrates  to  the  pith,  which 
it  devours,  forming  a  burrow  several  inches  long,  causing 
the  bushes  to  sicken,  and  frequently  to  break  off.  The 
moth  comes  forth  in  early  summer. 

The  Genus  ALgeria  contains  the  Squash-vine  vEgeria, 
AL.  curcurbitce,  Harr.,  which  expands  an  inch  to  an  inch 
and  a  half,  the  body  orange  color,  spotted  with  black,  and 
hind  legs  fringed  with  long  orange  and  black  hairs  ;  only 
the  hind  wings  transparent.  In  the  caterpillar  state  it  de- 
vours the  squash  and  other  vines  in  the  month  of  August, 
perforating  the  stem  near  the  ground. 

ZYG^NID^E,  Latr.  —  This  Family  comprises  lepidoptera 
which  have  the  body  slender,  wings  rather  narrow  and 
covered  -with  powdery  scales.  They  are  called  Glauco- 
pidians,  from  the  glaucous  appearance  of  some  of  them. 

The  Genus  Etidryas  comprises  the  Beautiful  Wood- 
Nymphs.  The  Wood-Nymph,  E.  grata,  Fabr.,  expands 
one  inch  and  a  half  to  one  inch  and  three  fourths,  the 
fore  wings  pure  white,  with  a  broad  stripe  along  the  front 
edge  for  more  than  half  its  length,  and  a  broad  band 
around  the  outer  hind  margin,  of  a  deep  purple  brown, 
the  band  edged  on  the  inside  with  olive  green,  and  marked 
towards  the  edge  with  a  wavy  white  line  ;  under  .side 
of  the  fore  wings  yellow,  with  a  round  and  kidney-shaped 
black  spot.  The  hind  wings  are  yellow,  with  a  broad 


396  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

purplish  brown  hind  border  above,  on  which  there  is  a 
wavy  white  line  ;  below  they  have  a  central  black  dot. 
The  caterpillar,  which  infests  the  grape-vine,  attains  one 
inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  is  blue,  transversely  banded 
with  deep  orange,  the  bands  dotted  with  black  ;  the  top 
of  the  eleventh  ring  is  humped. 

The  Genus  Harrisina  contains  H.  americana,  which 
expands  about  an  inch,  and  is  blue  black,  with  a  saffron- 
colored  .collar,  and  a  notched  tuft  at  the  hind  extremity. 
The  caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  vine  and  woodbine. 

BOMBYCID^E,  Latr.,  OR  SILK-  WORM  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  mainly  thick-bodied  moths  which  have 
the  head  small  and  sunken,  antennae  generally  feathered 
or  pectinated,  mouth-parts  short,  thorax  woolly,  and  the 
fore  legs  very  hairy.  The  caterpillars  have  sixteen  legs, 
and,  with  few  exceptions,  spin  cocoons.  Some  genera 
are  small  ;  others  are  the  largest  of  all  the  Lepidoptera. 
The  members  of  this  family  supply  the  world  with  silk. 

The  Genus  Litlwsia  has  the  body  slender,  and  the 
very  narrow  fore  wings,  lie  flat  upon  the  top  of  the  back. 
The  Striped  Lithosian,  L.  miniata,  Kirby,  expands 
over  an  inch,  and  is  deep  scarlet,  with  three  broad  lead- 
colored  stripes  on  the  fore  wings  ;  hind  pair  with  a  broad 
lead-colored  border  behind  ;  abdomen  with  broad  scarlet 
stripe  below. 

The  Genus  Deiopeia  contains  the  Beautiful  Dei'opeia, 
rig.  293.  D.    bclla,    Drury,    which    ex- 

pands about  an  inch  and 
three  fourths,  its  fore  wings 
deep  yellow,  crossed  by  about 
six  white  bands,  each  bearing 
a  row  of  black  dots  ;  hind 


Beautiful  Delopeia,  Z>.  W&,  Drury.  rreg. 


ular  black  border. 

The  Genus  Callimorpha  contains  the  Soldier-Moth,  C. 


LEPIDOPTERA  I    BOMBYCID^.  397 

militaris,  Harr.,  which  expands  about  two  inches,  and 
the  fore  wings  are  white  bordered  with  brown,  and  with 
an  oblique  band  of  the  same  color  from  the  inner  margin 
to  the  tip ;  hind  wings  white,  without  spots. 

The  Genus  Crocota  contains  pale  red  species.  It  is 
like  a  geometrid  moth  in  form,  and  may  easily  be  mis- 
taken for  one. 

The  Genus  Arctia  has  the  body  thick,  and  the  larvae 
have  whorls  of  long  hairs  and  are  called  Woolly  Bears. 

The  Virgin  Tiger-Moth,  A.  virgo,  Sm.  Abb.,  expands 
two  and  a  half  inches,  and  the  fore  wings  are  flesh-red 
fading  to  reddish  buff,  and  marked  with  stripes  and  spots 
of  black ;  hind  wings  vermilion  blotched  with  black. 

The  Harnessed  Moth,  A.  phalerata,  Harr,,  expands  from 
one  inch  and  a  half  to  one  inch  and  three  fourths,  and 
the  color  is  pale  buff,  the  hind  wings  next  to  the  body 
and  the  sides  of  the  body  reddish,  and  the  fore  wings 
with  two  longitudinal  black  stripes  and  four  triangular 
black  spots. 

The  Isabella  Tiger-Moth,  A.  Isabella,  Hiibner,  expands 
two  inches  or  more,  and  the  color  is  tawny,  with  a  few 
black  spots  on  the  wings,  and  a  row  of  black  dots  on 
each  side  and  above  the  body.  The  caterpillar  is  very 
thickly  clothed  with  short,  stiff,  even  hairs,  which  are 
black  on  the  first  four  and  last  two  segments,  and  tan- 
red  on  the  intermediate  ones.  If  taken  up  it  immedi- 
ately rolls  itself  into  a  ball.  It  remains  torpid  through 
the  winter,  makes  an  oval  blackish  cocoon  in  the  spring, 
and  comes  out  a  moth  in  summer. 

The  Genus  Spilosoma  has  the  color  white,  gray,  or 
yellow,  with  black  dots  or  stripes. 

The  Virginia  Ermine-Moth,  or  White  Miller,  S.  vir- 
ginica,  Fabr.,  expands  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to  two 
inches,  color  white,  with  a  black  point  on  the  fore  wings 
and  two  black  dots  on  the  hind  ones. 


398 


ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 


The  Salt-Marsh  Moth,  5.  acrcea,  Drury,  expands  about 
two  inches,  and  the  fore  wings  are  generally  white,  hind 
wings  and  abdomen  yellow,  the  wings  with  black  spots, 
and  the  abdomen  with  a  row  of  black  spots  above,  two 

Fig.  294. 


Salt-Marsh  Moth,  Larva,  Pupa,  and  Imago,  ^.  acrcea,  Drury. 

rows  on  the  sides,  and  one  row  below.  The  female  ex- 
pands about  two  inches  and  a  half,  and  differs  from  the 
male  in  having  the  hind  wings  white,  or  in  having  all  the 
wings  ashy  gray,  with  the  usual  black  spots.  The  cater- 
pillars, produced  from  eggs  laid  on  the  grass  of  salt- 
marshes,  attain  the  length  of  an  inch  and  three  quar- 
ters, and  are  clothed  with  brown  hairs  in  spreading 
tufts. 

The  Weaver,  5.  textor,  Harr.,  expands  an  inch  and  a 
quarter,  and  is  white,  without  spots.  The  larvse  weave 
large  webs  over  the  branches  of  fruit  and  other  trees  in 
the  fall,  and  devour  the  upper  skin  and  pulpy  part  of  the 
leaves. 

The  Genus  Halesidota,  or  Lophocampa,  Harr.,  com- 
prises moths  whose  larvae  are  short,  thick,  and  have  a 
crest  of  tufts  along  the  back.  It  contains  the  Hickory 
Tussock-Moth,  H.  carya,  Harr.,  which  expands  about  two 
inches  and  a  quarter ;  and  the  Checkered  Tussock-Moth, 
H.  tessellaris,  Sm.  Abb.,  which  expands  about  two  inches. 

The  Genus  Orgyia  embraces  Tussock-Moths  which  in 


LEPIDOPTERA  :    BOMBYCID^E.  399 

the  caterpillar  state  have  long  pencils  of  hair  projecting 
before  and  behind  the  body. 

The  White-marked  Orgyia,  or  Tussock-Moth,  O.  leuco- 
stigmay  Smith,  expands  one  inch  and  three  eighths,  and 
the  wings  are  ashen  gray  crossed  by  wavy  darker  bands 
on  the  forward  pair,  on  which  there  is  also  a  black  spot 
near  the  tip,  and  a  minute  white  crescent  near  the  outer 
hind  angle  ;  females  lighter,  and  apparently  wingless. 

The  Genus  Notodonta  contains  moths  which  in  the 
larva  state  are  singularly  humped,  and  have  the  last  pair 
of  prop-legs  prolonged  in  many  cases,  and,  when  at  rest, 
elevated  over  the  back. 

The  Unicorn  Moth,  N.  unicornis,  Sm.  Abb.,  expands 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  the  fore 
wings  are  light  brown,  with  patches  of  greenish  white, 
and  with  wavy  dark  brown  lines,  two  of  which  enclose  a 
whitish  space  near  the  shoulders  ;  hind  wings  of  the  male 
dingy  white,  with  a  dusky  spot  near  the  inner  hind  angle. 
The  caterpillar,  found  in  August  and  September  on  plum 
and  apple  trees,  attains  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  the  horn  arising  from  the  top  of  the  fourth 
ring. 

The  Genus  Lagoa  has  the  body  very  stout  and  woolly, 
and  the  wings  short,  broad,  and  wrinkled  transversely. 

The  Common  Lagoa,  L.  crispata,  Packard,  lives  in  the 
raspberry,  in  the  larva  state. 

The  Genus  Limacodes  has  the  wings  rather  broad  and 
deflexed,  hind  tibiae  with  four  spurs,  and  abdomen  slightly 
tufted.  The  larvae  are  slug-like,  and  the  under  side  of  the 
body  is  smeared  with  a  sticky  fluid,  which  leaves  a  slimy 
track  wherever  they  go.  Their  cocoons  are  round  and 
parchment-like,  and  fastened  to  the  twigs  of  plants. 

The  Genus  Bombyx  contains  the  celebrated  Silk-worm 
Moth,  B.  mori,  Linn.  The  caterpillar,  known  as  the  Silk- 
worm, feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry.  It  spins  a 


4OO  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

cocoon  containing  about  one  thousand  feet  of  silk.  It  is 
a  native  of  China. 

The  Genus  Attacus,  as  limited  by  Linnaeus,  is  the 
prominent  group  of  the  family.  It  contains  exceedingly 
large  and  magnificent  species,  with  large,  eyed  wings, 
and  antennae  broadly  feathered  on  both  sides  in  both 
sexes.  The  larvae  bear  tubercles  tipped  with  bristles. 
Recent  writers  refer  the  species  to  several  genera. 
A.  atlas,  of  China,  expands  eight  inches. 
The  Cecropia  Moth,  A.  cecropia,  Linn.,  expands  from 
five  inches  and  three  fourths  to  six  inches  and  a  half, 
and  the  wings  are  grizzly  dusky  brown,  with  clay-col- 
ored hind  margins,  and  near  the  middle  of  each  wing 
there  is  an  opaque  kidney-shaped  dull  red  spot,  having 
a  white  centre  and  a  narrow  black  edging,  and  beyond 
the  spot  a  wavy  dull  red  band,  internally  bordered  with 
white  ;  the  fore  wings  are  dull  red  next  to  the  shoul- 
ders, with  a  curved  white  band,  and  near  their  tips  is  an 
eye-like  black  spot  within  a  bluish-white  crescent.  This 
magnificent  moth  appears  in  June.  The  caterpillar  at- 
tains the  length  of  three  inches  or  more,  and  is  of  a  light 
green  color,  and  has  red  and  yellow  warts  armed  with 
short  bristles.  The  cocoon  is  three  inches  long,  and 
fastened  to  the  side  of  a  twig.  The  outer  coat  is  wrin- 
kled, and  resembles  strong  brown  paper,  and  inside  of 
Fig  297  this  is  loose  yellowish-brown 

strong  silk,  surrounding  an 
inner  oval  cocoon,  which  is 
composed  of  the  same  kind 
of  silk  very  closely  woven. 
The  moth  comes  out  of  the 

Chrysalis  of  Cecropia,  cocoon  removed.  n  -\  i     ,1          ,1  j 

small  end,   and   the   threads 

of  silk  so  converge  afterwards  as  almost  to  close  the 
opening.  It  is  the  largest  moth  in  North  America.  This 
species  and  the  next  are  now  referred  to  Samia. 


LEPIDOPTERA  I    BOMBYCID^.  4<DI 

The  Promethea  Moth,  A.  promethea,  Drury,  expands 
from  three  inches  and  three  fourths  to  four  inches  and  a 
quarter,  and  the  male  is  deep  smoky  brown  above,  the 
female  light  reddish-brown  ;  in  both  the  wings  are  crossed 
by  a  wavy  whitish  line  near  the  middle,  and  have  a  clay- 
colored  border,  which  is  marked  by  a  wavy  reddish  line  ; 
and  near  the  tips  of  the  fore  wings  there  is  an  eye-spot 
within  a  bluish-white  crescent.  This  moth  appears  in 
July.  The  caterpillar  feeds  upon  the  sassafras-tree.  Be- 
fore making  its  cocoon,  it  fastens  to  the  twig  with  silken 
threads  the  leaf  that  is  to  cover  its  cocoon,  so  that  it 
shall  not  fall  in  autumn,  and  then  spins  its  cocoon  on 
the  leaf,  bending  over  the  edges  of  the  latter  to  cover  it. 

The  Luna  Moth,  A.  luna,  Fabr.,  expands  from  -four 
inches  and  three  quarters  to  five  inches  and  a  half,  and 
the  wings  are  of  a  delicate  light  green,  the  hinder  angle 
of  the  posterior  ones  prolonged  into  a  tail  of  an  inch  and 
a  half  or  more  in  length,  and  each  wing  with  an  eye-like 
spot,  which  is  transparent  in  the  centre  and  encircled  by 
rings  of  white,  red,  yellow,  and  black.  The  caterpillar 
lives  on  the  walnut  and  hickory,  attains  its  growth,  two 
or  three  inches  in  length,  in  July  and  August,  is  pale 
bluish-green,  with  a  yellow  stripe  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  and  the  back  is  crossed  between  the  rings  by  the 
same  color.  On  each  ring  are  about  six  pearly-colored 
warts  tinged  with  purple,  and  at  the  extremity  of  the 
body  are  three  brown  spots  edged  above  with  yellow.  It 
draws  together  two  or  three  leaves,  and  spins  its  cocoon 
inside  of  them ;  the  cocoons  fall  with  the  leaves  in  au- 
tumn, and  the  next  June  the  beautiful  Luna  appears. 
This  species  is  now  referred  to  Tropcea. 

The  Polyphemus  Moth,  A.  polypheinus,  Fabr.,  expands 
from  five  and  a  quarter  to  six  inches ;  wings  ochre-yel- 
low, and  on  each  there  is  a  transparent  eye-spot,  divided 
by  a  slender  line,  and  encircled  by  yellow  and  black 


4<D2  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

rings.  Before,  and  adjoining  the  eye-spots  of  the  hind 
wings,  there  is  a  large  blue  spot  shading  into  black.  It 
appears  in  June.  It  is  now  referred  to  Telea. 

The  Genus  Saturnia  —  Saturnians  —  has  the  antennae 
widely  feathered  only  in  the  males,  and  the  larva  has  small 
warts  crowned  with  long  prickles  or  branching  spines,  and 
these  prickles  sting  severely. 

The  lo,  5.  lo,  Sm.  Abb.,  expands  from  two  inches  and 
three  fourths  to  three  inches  and  a  half,  and  the  male  is 
deep  yellow,  the  fore  wings  marked  and  spotted  with  pur- 
plish-red, and  the  hind  wings  bordered  next  the  body 
and  banded  near  the  hind  margin  with  the  same  color, 
and  within  this  band  there  is  a  curved  black  line  ;  middle 
of  the  wing  with  a  large,  round,  blue  spot  with  a  broad 
black  border  and  a  central  white  mark  ;  fore  wings  of  the 
female  purplish-brown  mingled  with  gray,  with  a  brown 
spot  surrounded  by  an  irregular  gray  line.  It  is  now  re- 
ferred to  Hyperchiria. 

The  Proserpina,  5.  maia,  Drury,  expands  from  two 
inches  and  a  half  to  three  inches,  and  the  wings  are  thin, 
black,  and  both  pairs  crossed  by  a  broad  yellow-white 
band,  near  the  middle  of  which,  on  each  wing,  there  is  a 
kidney-shaped  spot  of  black  with  a  whitish  crescent. 

The  Genus  Ceratocampa  embraces  moths  which  in  the 
caterpillar  state  are  armed  with  horns,  and  which  eat  the 
leaves  of  forest-trees,  and  enter  the  ground  to  undergo 
their  transformations.  The  species  are  of  gigantic  size. 

The  Regal  Walnut-Moth,  C.  regalis,  Fabr.,  expands 
from  five  to  six  inches,  the  fore  wings  olive-colored,  with 
several  yellow  spots,  and  veined  with  broad  red  lines  ; 
hind  wings  orange  red,  with  two  large  irregular  yellow 
patches  before,  and  a  row  of  wedge-shaped,  olive-colored 
spots  between  the  veins  behind.  The  larva  feeds  upon 
the  walnut-tree,  and  attains  four  or  five  inches  in  length. 
It  is  now  referred  to  Citheronia.  It  flies  in  July  and 
August. 


LEPIDOPTERA:  BOMBYCIM:.  403 

The  Genus  Dryocampa  has  the  antennae  deeply  pec- 
tinated to  much  beyond  half  the  length,  and  thence 
minutely  serrated  to  the  tips  in  the  male,  but  simple  in 
the  female.  The  larvae  enter  the  ground  to  go  through 
their  transformations. 

The  Imperial  moth,  D.  imperialis,  Harr.,  Eacles  imperi- 
alis, Hlibner,  expands  from  four  and  a  half  to  five  inches, 
and  the  wings  are  yellow,  thickly  sprinkled  with  purplish- 
brown  dots ;  a  large  patch  at  the  base,  a  spot  near  the 
middle,  and  a  band  towards  the  hind  margin  of  each 
wing,  light  purplish-brown.  The  males  have  additional 
purple,  covering  much  of  the  outer  hind  margin  of  the 
fore  wings.  It  flies  in  June  and  July. 

The  Senatorial  Dryocampa,  D.  senatoria,  Fabr.,  expands 
from  an  inch  and  three  quarters  to  two  inches  and  a  half, 
and  is  ochre-yellow,  the  wings  tinged  with  purplish-red, 
and  crossed  by  a  narrow  purplish-brown  band.  The  fore 
wings  are  dotted  with  blackish,  and  have  a  small  round 
white  spot  near  the  middle. 

The  Genus  Hepialus  has  the  antennas  very  short,  slen- 
der, almost  threadlike. 

The  Silver-spotted  Hepialus,  H.  argenteo-maculatus, 
Harr.,  expands  two  inches  and  three  quarters,  and  the 
fore  wings  have  a  triangular  spot  and  dot  of  silvery  white 
near  the  base. 

The  Genus  Cossus  has  the  wings  long,  thickly  veined, 
and  the  antennae  with  a  double  row  of  short  teeth  along 
the  under  side. 

The  Locust-tree  Carpenter-Moth,  C.  robini<zy  Peck,  ex- 
pands about  three  inches,  the  color  gray,  the  fore  wings 
thickly  covered  with  dusky  netted  lines  and  irregular 
spots,  and  the  hind  wings  more  uniformly  dusky.  The 
male  is  much  smaller  and  darker,  and  has  a  large  ochre- 
yellow  spot  near  the  hind  margin  of  the  hind  wings.  The 
caterpillar  bores  the  locust-trees  and  the  red  oak. 


404  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

The  Genus  Psyche  comprises  moths  which  in  the  larva 
state  live  in  cases  open  at  both  ends.  They  are  called 
Sack-bearers.  Perophera  is  a  closely  allied  genus,  and 
contains  Melsheimer's  Sack-bearer,  P.  Melsheimerii,  Harr., 
a  very  interesting  species.  Its  case,  as  seen  by  Harris, 
consists  of  two  oblong  oval  pieces  of  leaf  fastened  to- 
gether by  their  edges. 

The  Genus  Clisiocampa  has  a  stout  woolly  body,  short, 
stoutly  pectinated  antennae,  and  short,  broad  wings. 

The  American  Tent-Caterpillar  Moth,  C.  americana, 
Harr.,  expands  from  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  an  inch 
and  a  half,  and  is  reddish-brown,  the  fore  wings  crossed 
Fig.  298.  by  two  oblique,  dingy- white  lines. 

The  caterpillars  of  this  species 
abound  in  neglected  orchards  and 
nurseries,  and  upon  wild  cherry- 
trees,  and  are  familiar  to  every  one. 
The  eggs  from  which  they  hatch 

Tent-Caterpillar  Moth,  C.  J 

americana,  Harr.  are  situated  in  SL  cluster  nearly  sur- 

rounding the  small  branches  towards  their  extremity,  and 
are  covered  with  a  sort  of  water-proof  varnish.  They 
hatch  at  the  time  of  the  unfolding  of  the  leaves  of  the 
cherry  and  apple  tree.  The  little  caterpillars  soon  form 
a  small  tent  between  the  forks  of  the  branches,  a  little 
below  the  position  of  the  eggs.  Here  they  remain  when 
not  engaged  in  eating.  In  crawling  from  one  twig  to 
another,  they  spin  a  fine  silken  thread,  which  serves  to 
conduct  them  back  to  their  tent.  As  they  grow  larger, 
they  enlarge  the  tent,  surrounding  it  from  time  to  time 
with  new  layers.  They  feed  at  stated  times,  and  at  once 
return  to  their  tents  when  they  have  finished  eating. 
They  always  rest  in  their  webs  at  noon.  In  stormy 
weather  they  do  not  come  out  at  all.  At  maturity,  which 
occurs  from  the  first  to  the  middle  of  June,  they  begin  to 
leave  the  trees,  separate,  wander  about  for  a  time,  and  at 


LEPIDOPTERA  : 


405 


length,  in  some  sheltered  place,  spin  their  cocoons.    These 

are  regular,  oval,  and  loosely  woven, 

and  the  meshes  are  filled  with  a 

thin  paste,  which  on  drying  becomes 

a  yellow  powder.     After  remaining 

in  the  chrysalis  state  from  fourteen 

to  seventeen  days,  they  come  forth     Cocoon,  c.  amertcana, 

in  the  winged  form. 

NOCTU^LIT^:,  Latr.,  OR  OWLET-MOTH  FAMILY.—  This 
Family  comprises  thick-bodied,  swift-flying  moths  which 
have  the  antennae  long  and  tapering,  rarely  pectinated, 
the  thorax  thick  and  often  crested,  and  each  of  the  fore 
wings  marked  behind  the  middle  of  the  front  edge  with 
two  spots,  one  round  and  small,  the  other  larger  and  kid- 
ney-shaped. They  are  exceedingly  alike  in  general  ap- 
pearance, and  are  mostly  some  shade  of  gray  or  brown. 
A  few  fly  by  day,  but  most  of  them  only  at  night  They 
are  greatly  attracted  by  light,  and  thus  enter  houses  in 
great  numbers  on  summer  evenings.  The  larvae  taper 
towards  each  end,  and  make  thin,  earthen  cocoons. 

The  Genus  Leucania  contains  the  Army-worm  Moth 
and  its  allies.  The  species  are  yellowish-white,  and  the 
larvae  naked. 

The  Genus  Agrotis  —  Dart-Moths  —  has  the  antennae 
in  the  males  generally  pectinated  on  the  under  side,  wings 
nearly  horizontal  when  closed,  and  the  fore  legs  often 
spiny.  The  larvae  are  well  known  as  Cut-  Worms,  which 
do  great  damage  in  the  fields  and  gardens,  by  cutting  off 
the  leaves  of  plants,  or  by  cutting  down  the  tender  plants 
close  to  the  ground.  They  are  very  destructive  in  early 
and  middle  summer,  after  which  they  go  into  the  chrysa- 
lis state  in  the  ground,  and  later  come  forth  as  moths. 

The  Genus  Mamestra  has  the  wings  rather  broad,  tho- 
rax slightly  crested,  and  a  W-  or  M-shaped  character  near 
the  outer  hind  margin  of  the  fore  wings  ;  larvae  brilliant. 


406  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

The  Genus  Gortyna  contains  the  Spindle-worm  Moth 
and  its  allies,  which  in  the  larva  state  live  in  the  roots 
and  stems  of  plants. 

The  Spindle-worm  Moth,  or  Corn  Gortyna,  G.  zece, 
Harr.,  expands  about  an  inch  and  a  half,  and  the  fore 
wings  are  rust-red  mottled  with  gray,  with  a  tawny  patch 
near  the  tip,  and  a  few  black  dots  on  the  veins ;  hind 
wings  yellowish-gray,  with  two  indistinct  dusky  bands  and 
a  dusky  spot.  The  caterpillar,  known  as  the  Spindle- 
Worm,  attains  one  inch  in  length,  is  smooth,  naked,  yel- 
lowish, the  head  and  top  of  the  first  and  last  rings  black, 
and  a  darker  row  of  shining  black  dots  across  each  of  the 
others.  It  bores  into  the  stems  of  Indian  corn. 

PHAL.ENID^E,   Latr.,  OR  GEOMETRID   FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  moths  whose  larvae  seem  to  measure 
the  surfaces  over  which  they  pass.     The  necessity  of  this 
Fig.  300.  sort  of  movement  results  from  the  fact 

that  they  have  only  ten  legs ;  six  true  ones 
under  the  fore  part  of  the  body,  and  four 
prop-legs  at  the  hind  extremity ;  three  in- 

Geometer,  or  Span-  .  .  . 

worm.  termediate  pairs  of  prop-legs  being  want- 

ing. Some,  however,  have  twelve  or  fourteen  legs,  but 
in  such  cases  the  additional  prop-legs  are  too  short  to 
assist  much  in  creeping,  so  that  these  also  creep  like  those 
above  described.  Geometrids  live  upon  trees,  and  in  most 
cases  undergo  their  transformation  upon  or  in  the  ground, 
which  they  reach  by  letting  themselves  down  by  a  silken 
thread,  which  they  spin  from  their  mouth  while  descend- 
ing. They  are  generally  smooth,  and  when  at  rest,  many 
of  them  stand  on  the  two  hind  pairs  of  legs,  with  the  body 
extended,  and  thus  may  be  easily  mistaken  for  a  little 
twig.  Often,  when  disturbed,  they  let  themselves  down, 
and,  when  no  danger  is  apprehended,  return  to  the  tree 
again  by  the  same  thread  by  which  they  descended.  In 
the  perfect  state  these  insects  are  mainly  slender-bodied 


LEPIDOPTERA:  PHAL^NID^:.  407 

moths,  with  tapering  antennae  and  large  and  delicate 
wings.  The  females  in  some  cases  are  wingless. 

The  Genus  Geometra  contains  the  Chain-dotted  Ge- 
ometer, G.  catenaria,  Harr.,  represented  in  the  larva  state 
by  Fig.  300.  Its  cocoon  is  made  with  meshes,  through 
which  the  insect  may  be  seen.  It  is  now  Bupalus. 

The  Genus  Anisopteryx  has  the  wings  in  the  two  sexes 
very  unequal,  or  the  females  are  wingless. 

The  Canker-worm  Moth,  A.  vernata,  Peck,  expands 
about  an  inch  and  a  quarter,  and  the  wings  are  large, 
thin,  and  silky.  The  females  are  wingless.  The  larvae, 
called  Canker-worms,  make  their  appearance  upon  the 
trees  about  the  time  the  leaves  of  the  apple-tree  begin  to 
start  from  the  bud.  They  hatch  from  clusters  of  eggs 
which  have  been  placed  upon  the  branches  at  various 
times  in  and  .since  the  preceding  autumn.  They  imme- 
diately commence  their  depredations.  The  leaves  are 
found  at  first  to  be  pierced  with  small  holes,  but  as  the 
caterpillars  grow  they  enlarge  these  holes,  and  at  length 
little  more  is  left  than  the  midrib  and  veins.  The  Canker- 
worms  vary  greatly  in  color  at  different  ages,  and  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  age  differ  in  this  respect.  When  not 
eating,  they  are  stretched  out  at  full  length  beneath  the 
leaves.  When  about  four  weeks  old  they  reach  their 
full  size,  and  are  then  about  an  inch  long.  They  now 
quit  eating,  descend  to  the  ground,  and,  entering  to  the 
depth  of  two  to  six  inches,  each  makes  a  little  cavity  by 
repeated  turnings,  and  soon  passes  into  the  chrysalis 
state.  They  remain  in  this  state  till  after  the  first  frosts 
of  autumn,  when  they  begin  to  come  forth  in  the  moth 
state,  and  continue  to  do  so,  whenever  the  weather  is  mild 
enough,  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  autumn  and  the 
winter.  They  rise  in  the  greatest  numbers,  however,  in 
the  spring.  They  come  out  of  the  ground  mainly  in  the 
night,  and  often  make  their  appearance  in  immense  num- 


408  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

bers.  The  females  crawl  up  the  nearest  trees,  where  they 
are  joined  by  the  males,  and  soon  begin  to  lay  their  eggs, 
which  they  place  in  rows,  forming  separate  clusters  of 
sixty  to  a  hundred  or  more,  each  cluster  being  the  pro- 
duct of  a  single  female.  Canker-worms  are  among  the 
most  destructive  of  all  the  insects,  and  it  is  not  till  they 
have  nearly  ruined  the  foliage  of  a  tree  that  we  are  fully 
aware  of  their  presence. 

The  Genus  Hibernia  contains  the  Lime-tree  Winter- 
Moth,  H.  tiliaria,  Harr.,  which  expands  an  inch  and  three 
fourths,  and  the  fore  wings  are  rusty  buff,  with  fine  brown- 
ish dots  and  two  transverse  wavy  brown  lines ;  hind  wings 
paler,  with  a  brownish  dot  in  the  middle. 

PYRALID^:,  OR  DELTA-MOTH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  those  called  Delta-Moths  because  of  their  tri- 
angular form  when  the  wings  are  closed. 

The  Genus  Hypena  contains  the  Hop-vine  Moths,  which 
have  their  feelers  long,  wide,  and  held  close  together  and 
projecting  like  a  snout,  and  the  antennae  bristle-like.  The 
caterpillars  are  false  loopers,  bending  up  the  back  a  little 
when  they  creep.  They  are  about  eight  tenths  of  an  inch 
long  when  fully  grown,  and  green.  When  disturbed  they 
bend  their  bodies  with  a  jerk,  first  on  one  side,  then  on 
the  other,  each  time  throwing  themselves  to  a  consid- 
erable distance.  They  eat  large  holes  in  the  hop-leaves. 

The  Genus  Aglossa  contains  the  Grease-Moth,  A.  pin- 
guinalis,  Harr.,  which  has  the  wings  narrow,  glossy,  smoky 
gray,  and  crossed  by  wavy  lighter-colored  bands.  The 
larva  lives  in  fatty  substances. 

The  Genus  Pyralis  contains  the  Meal-Moth,  P.  farina- 
Us,  Harr.,  which  expands  about  one  inch,  the  fore  wings 
light  brown,  crossed  by  two  curved  white  lines,  and  there 
is  a  dark  chocolate-brown  spot  on  the  base  and  tip.  The 
caterpillar  is  found  in  old  flour-barrels. 

The  Genus  Galleria  contains  the  Bee-Moth,  G.  cereana, 


LEPIDOPTERA:  TORTRICID^E.  409 

Fabr.,  which  expands  from  one  inch  to  one  inch  and  a 
half,  and  the  fore  wings  slope  steeply  and  turn  up  at  the 
end ;  the  male  is  grayish,  the  fore  wings  scalloped  on  the 
hind  margin,  glossed  and  streaked  with  purplish  brown 
on  the  outer  edge,  and  marked  with  a  few  dark  spots  near 
the  inner  margin  ;  hind  wings  light  yellowish  gray  with 
light  fringes.  The  female  has  the  fore  wings  longer  in 
proportion,  less  deeply  scalloped,  and  the  color  darker. 
By  day  bee-moths  remain  quiet  about  the  bee-houses, 
but  at  night  they  hover  around  the  hives,  into  which  they 
enter  and  lay  their  eggs ;  or,  not  succeeding  in  this,  they 
deposit  their  eggs  upon  the  outside.  There  are  two 
broods  in  a  year.  The  larvae  feed  upon  wax  ;  they  enter 
the  hive  as  soon  as  they  are  hatched,  and  work  their  way 
in  all  directions  through  the  waxen  cells,  and  thus  destroy 
them.  During  the  day  they  remain  concealed  in  silken 
tubes,  which  they  begin  to  make  for  themselves  as  soon 
as  hatched.  They  enlarge  these  tubes  as  they  increase 
in  size,  and  cover  them  with  a  coating  of  wax  as  a  defence 
against  the  stings  of  the  bees,  and  thus  they  are  able  to 
go  on  with  their  work  of  destruction  with  impunity. 

The  Genus  Cmmbus  has  the  feelers  long,  wings  oblong, 
white  and  buff-yellow,  sometimes  ornamented  with  golden 
spots.  The  species  fly  in  the  grass  in  great  numbers, 
and  rest  on  the  stems  with  the  head  downwards. 

TORTRICID/E,  Leach,  OR  LEAF-ROLLING  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  moths  which  in  the  larva  state  roll  the 
edges  of  leaves  cf  plants  into  cylindrical  rolls  open  at 
each  end.  The  moths  are  mostly  small,  few 
expanding  more  than  one  inch,  the  antennae 
naked,  fore  wings  generally  ornamented  with 
spots  and  bands,  hind  wings  without  orna- 
ments, and  the  inner  edges  folded  against  the 

Leaf-roller, 

side  of  the  body.  Tortrix. 

The  Genus  Penthina  contains  the  Apple-worm  Moth, 
18 


41 0  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

P.  pomonella,  Harr.,  which  expands  three  fourths  of  an 
inch,  and  the  fore  wings  are  crossed  by  gray  and  brown 
lines,  and  near  the  hind  angle  is  a  large  dark  spot  with 
bright  copper-colored  edges ;  hind  wings  and  abdomen 
light  yellowish-brown  with  a  satin  lustre.  The  larva 
is  the  well-known  apple-worm,  which  every  child  has 
seen.  During  the  latter  part  of  June  and  in  July  the 
moths  fly  about  apple-trees  every  evening  and  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  cavity  at  the  blossom  end  of  the  little  apples. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days,  and  the  little  caterpil- 
lars immediately  burrow  into  the  fruit.  There  is  gen- 
erally but  one  to  each  apple,  and  so  small  at  first,  that 
it  is  detected  only  by  the  reddish  powder  it  throws  out 
in  eating  its  way  through  the  calyx.  In  the  course  of 
about  three  weeks  it  reaches  its  full  size,  and  meanwhile 
has  burrowed  to  the  core,  and  through  the  apple  in  vari- 
ous directions.  It  bores  a  hole  through  the  side  of  the 
apple,  out  of  which  it  thrusts  its  chips,  and  through 
which  the  insect  ultimately  escapes.  Soon  after  the 
half-grown  apples  fall,  the  caterpillars  leave  them,  crawl 
into  crevices,  and  each  spins  a  delicate  white  cocoon, 
in  which,  in  most  cases,  it  remains  till  the  next  summer, 
when  it  comes  forth  in  the  perfect  form. 

TINEID^E,  Leach,  OR  TINEA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  moths  which  in  the  larva  state  gnaw  wind- 
ing paths  in  the  substances  upon  which  they  subsist. 
They  devour  some  of  the  fragments,  and  fasten  together 
others  with  silken  threads,  thus  making  a  covering  for 
their  tender  bodies.  Some  thus  make  cylindrical  bur- 
rows ;  others  make  cases,  which  they  bear  about  with 
them.  They  are  the  smallest  of  the  Lepidoptera,  and 
are  generally  very  beautiful. 

The  Genus  Anacampsis  contains  the  Angoumois  Grain- 
Moth,  A.  cerealella,  Olivier,  which  expands  half  an  inch, 
and  is  pale  cinnamon-brown  above,  with  a  satin  lustre  ; 


LEPIDOPTERA:  TINEID^E.  411 

hind  wings  lead-color  ;  the  antennae  are  thread-like,  and 
consist  of  numerous  beaded  joints,  and  two  tapering  feelers 
are  turned  over  the  head.     It  lays  from  sixty  to  ninety 
eggs  in  clusters  of  about  twenty  on  a  single  kernel  of 
grain.    In  four  to  six  days  these  eggs  produce  little  worm- 
like  caterpillars  not  thicker  than  a  hair.     Each  burrows 
in  a  single  kernel,  and  devours  the  mealy  substance,  and 
the  work  of  destruction  goes  on  so  unseen,  that  it  is  only 
detected  by  the  softness  of  the  grain  or  the  loss  of  its 
weight.     When  fully  grown  the  Angoumois  caterpillar  is 
not  more  than  one  fifth  of  an  inch  long,  white,  with 
brownish  head,  six  small  jointed  legs,  and  ten  extremely 
small  prop-legs.     It  goes  into  the  chrysalis  state  within 
the  kernel.      Before  this  it  has  gnawed  a  hole  nearly 
through  by  which  to  escape  when  it  has   finished   its 
transformations.     The  insects  of  the  summer  brood  come 
to  the  full  larva  growth  in  about  three  weeks,  remain  for 
a  time  in  the  chrysalis  state,  and  in  autumn  they  appear 
ih  the  winged  form,  and  may  be  found  in  the  evening  in 
great  numbers  laying  their  eggs  upon  stored  grain.     The 
moth-worms  of  the  second  brood  remain  in  the  grain 
through  the  winter,  change  into  winged  moths  in  the 
summer,  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  ears  of  the  growing 
grain. 

The  Genus  Tinea  —  Tineans  —  contains  a  large  num- 
ber of  very  small  moths,  found  in  houses,  stores,  granaries, 
and  mills,  and  which  in  the  larva  state 
are  very  destructive,   devouring   almost 
all   kinds   of  substances.      The   winged 
moths  enter  through  the  cracks  into  clos- 
ets,  drawers,  chests,  or  get  under  the  edges 
of  carpets,  or  into  the  folds  of  curtains  and  garments,  and 
deposit  their  eggs,  which  hatch  into  caterpillars  in  about 
fifteen  days,  and  immediately  begin  to  gnaw  the  sub- 
stances within  reach,  and  cover  themselves  with  the  frag- 


412  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

ments,  shaping  them  into  hollow  rolls  and  lining  them 
with  silk.  They  generally  live  in  these  rolls  through  the 
summer,  enlarging  them  as  they  grow,  and  carrying  on 
their  work  of  destruction,  but  in  the  autumn  become  tor- 
pid, change  to  chrysalids  in  the  spring,  and  in  twenty 
days  come  forth  winged  moths,  which  in  turn  lay  their 
eggs  for  a  new  brood. 

PTEROPHORII,  Latr.,  OR  FEATHER-WINGED  MOTH  FAM- 
ILY.—  This  Family  comprises  moths  which  have  the 
wings  divided  lengthwise  into  narrow-fringed  branches, 
resembling  feathers,  and  the  body  and  legs  very  long  and 
slender. 


SUB-SECTION    III. 

THE  SUB-ORDER   OF  DIPTERA,    OR   TWO-WINGED   INSECTS. 

THE  Sub-Order  of  Diptera  comprises  insects  which  have 
only  two  wings  and  two  knobbed  threads,  called  balancers, 
in  the  place  of  the  hind  wings,  and  a  mouth  formed  for 
sucking  or  lapping.  The  sucker  or  proboscis  is  composed 
of  from  two  to  six  bristles,  in  some  cases  as  sharp  as 
needles,  and  either  enclosed  in  the  upper  groove  of  a 
proboscis-like  sheath,  terminated  by  two  lips,  or  covered 
by  one  or  two  laminae,  which  constitute  a  sheath  for  it. 
They  undergo  a  complete  transformation  in  coming  to 
maturity  ;  the  larvae  are  without  feet,  and  are  called  mag- 
gots, and  have  their  breathing  openings  generally  at  the 
hind  extremity.  The  pupae  or  chrysalids  are  in  most 
cases  enclosed  in  the  dried  skin  of  the  larvae,  though  some- 
times naked.  Diptera  are  exceedingly  numerous  both 
as  regards  species  and  the  swarms  of  individuals  of  each 
species.  They  are  mainly  small,  and  many  are  very 
minute.  In  the  classification  we  follow  Latreille,  with 
modifications  by  Westwood,  Loew,  and  others,  aided  by 
Loew's  Monograph  of  North  American  Diptera. 


DIPTERA:  CULICID.E.  413 

:,  Latr.,  OR  GNAT  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  diptera  which  have  the  body  and  legs  much 
elongated  and  very  delicate,  antennae  densely  pilose,  and 
which  have  a  long  piercing  sucker  consisting  of  five  bris- 
tles. Such  are  the  Gnats  and  Mosquitoes  which  abound 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  which  are  represented  by  a 
large  number  of  species.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the  larvae  may  be  seen  in 
all  stagnant  pools  throughout  the  warm  and  hot  months, 
for  there  are  several  generations  in  a  season.  The  larvae 
rest  with  the  head  downwards,  and  the  hind  extremity, 
which  contains  the  respiratory  openings,  is  at  the  surface 
of  the  water.  They  are  very  lively,  and  swim  or  wriggle 
with  great  agility,  dive  from  time  to  time,  but  soon  come 
again  to  the  surface  in  order  to  breathe.  At  length  they 
cast  their  skins  and  enter  the  pupa  state,  in  which  they 
still  live  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  move  by  means 
of  the  tail ;  but  they  now  take  a  different  position,  and 
breathe  through  two  tubes  placed  on  the  thorax.  After 
being  in  the  pupa  state  a  few  days,  the  skin  splits  on 
the  back  between  the  breathing-tubes,  the  winged  insect 
appears,  and,  after  resting  awhile  on  the  empty  skin  as 
it  floats  upon  the  surface  of  the  water,  spreads  its  wings, 
and,  humming  its  peculiar  note,  flies  away  in  search  of  a 
victim  whom  it  may  pierce  for  blood,  which  is  its  choicest 
food.  These  insects  discharge  a  poisonous  fluid  into  the 
wounds  which  they  inflict,  and  this  is  the  cause  of  the 
irritation  and  swelling  which  results  from  their  attacks. 

TIPULAR^LE,  Latr.,  OR  CRANE-FLY  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  embraces  diptera  which  have  the  body  slender, 
legs  very  long,  and  long  antennae  and  palpi.  The  Genus 
Cecidomyia  has  the  antennae  verticillate. 

The  Hessian  Fly,  C.  destructor,  Say,  is  one  tenth  of  an 
inch  long,  and  expands  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch ; 
head,  antennae,  and  thorax  black ;  wings  blackish,  except 


414  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

the  tawny  base,  and  fringed  with  short  hairs.  The  hind 
body  is  tawny,  with  black  on  each 
ring,  and  clothed  with  fine  grayish 
hairs ;  legs  brownish  and  feet  black. 
Two  broods  of  this  fly  appear  .in  a 
year,  —  one  in  spring  and  one  in  au- 
tumn. The  females  lay  their  eggs 
on  the  young  blades  of  wheat,  both 
in  spring  and  fall.  The  eggs  are 
about  one  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  length, 
four  thousandths  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
Say  clestructor'  ter,  cylindrical,  translucent,  and  pale 
red,  and  hatch  in  about  four  days, 
producing  pale  red  maggots.  The  larvae  immediately 
crawl  down  the  leaf,  and  work  their  way  between  the 
latter  and  the  main  stalk,  till  they  come  to  a  joint.  Here 
they  rest  a  little  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  with 
the  head  downwards,  and  do  not  move  from  the  place  till 
they  have  undergone  their  transformations.  They  injure 
the  plant,  not  by  eating  it  or  boring  into  it,  but  by  suck- 
ing its  sap  ;  and  when  several  are  fixed  upon  one  stem, 
the  plant  becomes  exhausted,  and  withers.  The  larvae 
come  to  their  full  size  in  five  or  six  weeks,  and  are  then 
three  twentieths  of  an  inch  long,  and  covered  with  a 
hardening  brown  or  chestnut-colored  skin,  and  the  insect 
is  then  said  to  be  in  the  flax-seed  state,  so  called  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  flax-seed.  In  April  and  May  they  com- 
plete their  transformations,  and  come  forth  in  the  winged 
state,  and  soon  begin  to  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  spring 
wheat,  and  upon  that  sown  the  autumn  before.  The 
maggots  hatched  from  these  eggs  pass  down  the  stem  as 
before  stated,  take  the  flax-seed  form  in  June  or  July,  and 
in  autumn  most  of  them  are  transformed  into  winged  in- 
sects ;  but  others  remain  through  the  winter,  and  are 
transformed  in  the  spring,  as  observed  above.  These 


DIPTERA:  TIPULARLE.  415 

flies  sometimes  move  in  immense  swarms  in  search  of 
fields  of  their  favorite  grain  where  they  may  lay  their 
eggs.  The  Hessian  fly  received  its  popular  name  from 
the  belief  that  it  was  brought  to  this  country  in  straw 
by  the  Hessian  troops  under  the  command  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Howe. 

The  American  Wheat-Fly,  C.  tritici,  Kirby,  is  one 
tenth  of  an  inch  or  less  in  length,  orange-colored,  the 
legs  long,  slender,  and  pale  yellow,  wings  transparent 
and  iridescent,  eyes  black  and  prominent,  and  antennae 
long  and  blackish,  those  of  the  male  being  twice  as  long 
as  the  body,  and  consisting  of  twenty-four  joints,  and 
those  of  the  female  about  as  long  as  the  body,  and  con- 
sisting of  twelve  joints.  The  wheat  insects,  in  their  per- 
fect form,  appear  some  time  between  the  first  of  June  and 
the  last  of  August,  according  to  locality  or  state  of  the 
season.  They  often  move  in  immense  swarms,  taking 
wing  in  the  morning  and  evening  twilight,  and  in  cloudy 
weather,  at  which  times  they  lay  their  eggs  in  the  opening 
flowers  of  the  grain  of  barley,  rye,  and  oats,  as  well  as 
wheat.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  eight  days,  producing 
little  yellow  larvae  or  maggots,  which  are  found  within 
the  chaffy  scales  of  the  grain.  The  eggs  are  laid,  and 
consequently  hatched,  at  different  times,  so  that  all  do 
not  come  to  maturity  together  ;  but  they  appear  to  come 
to  their  growth  in  about  fourteen  days.  These  insects 
prey  upon  wheat  in  blossom  and  in  the  milk,  and  do  not 
touch  the  kernel  after  it  has  become  hard.  They  pre- 
vent the  kernel  from  filling  at  all,  which  happens  when 
they  attack  the  grain  soon  after  the  blossoming ;  or  they 
cause  the  kernels  to  wither,  which  happens  when  they 
attack  it  somewhat  later.  At  length  they  cease  eating, 
become  sluggish  and  torpid,  and  soon  after  moult  their 
skins,  after  which  they  become  active  again,  and  in  a  few 
days  descend  to  the  ground  of  their  own  accord,  or  are 


416 


ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 


Fig.  304. 


shaken  down  by  the  wind.  Here  they  burrow,  remain 
through  the  winter  in  the  larva  form,  pass  into  the  pupa 
state  in  early  summer,  and  in  a  few  days  afterwards  come 
forth  in  the  winged  state. 

The  Genus  Chione  contains  the  Snow-Gnats,  which  are 
very  small,  wingless,  and  look  like  spiders,  and  are  found 
in  great  numbers  in  the  last  of  winter  upon  the  snow. 

The  Genus  Simulium  comprises  the  Black  Flies  and 
their  allies.  The  larvae  are  aquatic. 

TABANID/E,  Leach,  OR  HORSE-FLY  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  large  diptera  which  in  the  female  have 
a  proboscis  enclosing  six  sharp  lancets,  and  in  the  male, 
four ;  the  eyes  are  very  large  and  cov- 
er nearly  the  whole  head,  thorax  ob- 
long, and  abdomen  triangular.  They 
are  among  the  largest  of  the  Diptera, 
and  are  notorious  for  their  attacks 
upon  horses  and  cattle,  piercing  them 
and  sucking  their  blood,  and  causing 
them  great  pain.  The  larvae  live  in  the  ground. 

The  Genus  Tabanus  contains  the  Black  Horse-Fly,  T. 
atratus,  Fabr.,  which  is  seven  eighths  of  an  inch  long,  and 
expands  nearly  two  inches ;  the  Orange-belted  Horse-Fly, 
T.  cinctus,  Fabr.  ;  and  the  Lined  Horse-Fly,  T.  lineola, 
Fabr.,  at  once  distinguished  by  the  whitish  dorsal  line. 
ASILICI,  Latr.,  OR  ASILUS  FAMILY. — This  Family  corn- 
Fig.  305.  prises  diptera  which  are  of  large 
size,  with  the  body  long,  slender, 
and  clothed  with  stiff  bristles. 
They  are  rapacious,  seizing  and 
bearing  away  other  insects.  The 
larvae  live  in  the  roots  of  plants. 
The  Genus  Asilus  contains  the 

Asihis,  A.  atstuans,  Linn.  principal    Species. 

A.  sericeus,  Say,  is  about  an  inch  long,  brownish  yellow, 


Horse-Fly,  T.  lineola,  Fabr. 


DIPTERA:  CESTRID^E.  417 

wings  smoky  brown,  with  brownish-yellow  veins.     The 
larvae  feed  upon  the  roots  of  the  rhubarb. 

BOMBYLIARII,  Latr.y  OR  BEE-FLY  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  diptera  which  have  a 
long,  slender  proboscis,  and  the  body 
covered  with  hairs.  They  fly  with 
great  swiftness,  and  are  found  in  sun- 
ny paths  in  woods  in  spring. 

SYRPHID^E,    Leach,    OR    SYRPHIAN 
FAMILY.  —  This    Family    comprises     Bee-Fly, 

,.     A  ,  .    ,       ,  Us,  Fabr. 

diptera  which  bear  a  great  resem- 
blance to  the  Hymenoptera,  many  of  them  looking  so 
much  like  bees  and  wasps  as  to  be  easily  mistaken  for 
them  by  the  casual  observer.  The  head  is  hemispherical, 
antennae  three-jointed,  the  third  joint  largest,  eyes  large, 
and  body  rather  flattened.  They  are  ornamented  with 
yellow  bands  and  spots.  They  fly  with  amazing  rapidity, 
and  many  delight  to  hover  immovably  over  certain  spots. 
In  the  larva  state  they  feed  upon  plant-lice. 

DOLICHOPID^:,  Latr.  —  This  Family  embraces  small, 
brilliant,  metallic-colored  flies,  with  the  abdomen  com- 
pressed and  incurved  at  the  tip,  legs  long,  slender,  and 
armed  with  bristles.  They  are  found  solitary  in  damp 
situations,  or  in  numbers  flying  and  running  upon  pools 
and  streams  in  spring.  Dolichopus  is  generally  green. 

CEsTRiD;£,  Latr.,  OR  BOT-FLY  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  diptera  which  have  their  antennae  very  short 
and  inserted  in  two  little  holes  upon  the  forehead,  head 
large,  eyes  small,  with  a  large  space  between  them,  wings 
large,  covering  the  balancers,  and  the  hind  body  of  the 
females  with  a  conical  tube  bent  under  the  body,  and 
with  which  they  deposit  their  eggs  while  flying.  The 
larvae  inhabit  various  parts  of  the  body  of  herbivorous 
animals.  They  are  thick,  fleshy,  without  feet,  tapering 
towards  the  head,  which  in  most  cases  is  armed  with 
18*  AA 


4i 8  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

two  hooks,  and  the  segments  of  the  body  are  also  armed 
with  hooks  or  prickles.  More  than  twenty  species  are 
known,  and  several  are  found  in  this  country. 

The  Genus  Gasterophilus  comprises  three  species,  which 
Fig  307  infest  the  horse.     The  Large  Bot-Fly, 

G.  'equi,  Linn.,  lays  her  eggs  upon  the 
fore  legs  of  the  horse  ;  the  Red-tailed 
Bot-Fly,  G.  hcemorrhoidalis ,  Linn., 
lays  her  eggs  upon  the  lips  ;  and  the 
Brown  Farrier  Bot-Fly,  G.  veterinus, 

Bot-Fly,  G.e?ui,  Linn.  Green>    under    the    fa^       By  bidng 

the  parts  where  the  eggs  are  laid,  the  horse  gets  the  larvae 
into  his  mouth,  swallows  them,  and,  clinging  to  the  walls 
of  the  stomach,  they  remain  there  till  fully  grown. 

The  Genus  GEstrus  contains  the  Ox  Bot-Fly,  O.  bovis, 
Fabr.,  which  deposits  her  eggs  in  the  skin  of  the  backs  of 
cattle,  and  the  larvae  live  in  large  open  sores. 

The  Genus  Cephalemyia  contains  the  Sheep  Bot-Fly, 
C.  ovis,  Linn.,  which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  sheep, 
and  the  larvae  crawl  into  the  cavities  in  the  bones  of  the 
forehead,  and  in  many  cases  produce  death. 

MUSCIM:,  Latr.,  OR  FLY  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises diptera  which  have  short  antennae  that  end  with 
an  oval  joint  and  a  lateral  bristle,  a  short,  soft  proboscis 
ending  with  large  fleshy  lips,  enclosing  a  sucker  com- 
posed of  only  two  bristles,  and  capable  of  being  entirely 
retracted  into  the  oral  cavity.  The  larvae  are  fleshy, 
whitish  maggots,  and  never  cast  their  skins;  but  when 
they  pass  to  the  pupa  state,  they  shorten,  become  oblong- 
oval,  dry,  hard,  and  brown  on  the  outside.  This  family 
includes  about  one  third  of  all  the  Diptera,  and  its  mem- 
bers are  known  under  the  names  of  House-Flies,  Blow- 
Flies,  Flesh-Flies,  Flower-  and  Fruit-Flies,  Cheese-Flies, 
&c.  Meigen  has  described  about  seventeen  hundred  Eu- 
ropean species. 


DIPTERA  :    MUSCIDjE.  419 

The  Genus  Sarcophaga  contains  the  Flesh-Flies,  which 
are  viviparous,  and  which  deposit  their  larvae  upon  animal 
matter  and  other  substances  in  a  state  of  decomposi- 
tion. Reaumur  found  twenty  thousand  larvae  in  a  single 
flesh-fly. 

The  Genus  Musca  contains  the  common  House-Fly, 
M.  domestica,  Linn.,  the  larvae  of  which  are  'found  in 
manure ;  the  Blue-bottle  Fly,  M.  Casar,  Linn. ;  and  the 
Meat-Fly,  M.  vomitoria,  Linn.,  which  deposits  its  eggs, 
known  ae  fly-blows,  upon  meat  and  other  dead  animal 
matter. 

The  Genus  Stomoxys  comprises  flies  which  frequent 
our  apartments,  and  pierce  our  flesh  to  obtain  blood. 
Anthomyia  contains  species  whose  larvae  attack  the  rad- 
ish and  other  roots.  Ortalis  and  its  allies  produce  galls 
in  plants,  or  lay  eggs  in  raspberries  and  other  fruit 
Tephrites  causes  the  swellings  in  the  stems  of  asters. 
Oscinus  lays  its  eggs  in  the  flowers  of  grain,  and  the  young 
consume  the  grain.  Scatophaga  contains  the  Dung-Flies, 
which  are  almost  always  seen  on  manure.  The  males  are 
bright  ochre-yellow. 

HIPPOBOSCID.E,  Leach,  OR  SPIDER-FLY  FAMILY. — This 
Family  comprises  small  flat-bodied  flies,  which  infest 
quadrupeds  and  birds.  They  are  not  produced  from 
eggs  in  the  usual  way,  but  are  brought  forth  in  the  pupa 
state.  The  pupae  are  soft  and  white  at  first,  but  soon 
become  hard  and  brown. 

The  Genus  Hippobosca  nestles  in  the  hair  of  the  horse ; 
Ornithomyia  lives  in  the  plumage  of  birds  ;  Nycteribia  con- 
tains the  Bat-ticks,  and  Mellophaga  the  Sheep-ticks. 

PuLiciDjE,  Steph.,  OR  FLEA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
embraces  the  fleas,  which  are  wingless  flies,  with  hard, 
compressed  bodies,  a  sucker-like  arrangement  of  the 
mouth-parts,  and  large  hind  legs,  formed  for  leaping. 
Different  species  inhabit  different  animals. 


42O 


ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 


SUB-SECTION    IV. 

THE  SUB-ORDER  OF  COLEOPTERA,   OR  BEETLES. 

THE  Sub-Order  of  Coleoptera  comprises  insects  whose 
anterior  or  upper  wings  are  represented  by  a  pair  of  horny 
cases,  called  elytra,  meeting  in  a  straight  line  upon  the 
top  of  the  back,  and  often  having  a  small  triangular  or 
semicircular  piece,  called  the  scutellum,  wedged  between 
their  bases.  The  posterior  or  under  wings  are  thin,  mem- 
branous, and,  when  at  rest,  longitudinally  and  transverse- 
ly folded.  Beetles  are  provided  with  two  pairs  of  lateral- 
moving  jaws,  and  in  the  larva  state  are  grubs,  and  undergo 
complete  transformation  in  coming  to  maturity.  There 
are  probably  a  hundred  thousand  species  in  all.  In  the 
classification  of  the  Coleoptera,  we  follow  LeConte. 
CICINDELID^E,  Leach,  OR  TIGER-BEETLE  FAMILY. — 
Fig.  3o8.^  This  Family  comprises  brilliant -colored 
beetles  with  large  head,  globose  eyes,  long 
antennae,  and  very  long  and  dentated  man- 
dibles. They  prefer  warm  and  sandy  places, 
run  with  swiftness,  take  wing  on  the  slight- 
est alarm,  but  soon  alight  again.  They  are 
carnivorous,  and  very  voracious,  devouring 
other  insects  in  great  numbers.  The  larvae 
are  soft,  white,  and  provided  with  powerful 
jaws,  and,  like  the  adults,  carnivorous.  They 
dig  vertical  holes  in  the  ground,  Fig.  3io. 
in  which  they  remain,  the  head 
just  closing  the  entrance ;  and, 
when  some  insect  passes  near 
enough,  they  seize  the  victim  and 
drag  it  into  their  retreat. 
Tiger-Beetles.  The  Genus  Cicindela  contains 

the  principal  species.  The  common  Tiger-Beetle,  C.  vul- 
garis,  Say,  is  well  represented  by  Fig;  309,  and  the  Hairy- 
necked  Tiger-Beetle,  C.  kirticollis,  Say,  by  Fig.  308. 


COLEOPTERA:  CARABID^. 

CARABID^E,  Leack,  OR  PREDACEOUS  GROUND-BEETLE 
FAMILY.  —  This  Family  Fig>  3II 

comprises  a  large  num- 
ber of  predaceous  beetles 
which  have  the  upper 
jaws  very  powerful  and 
hooked,  body  oblong  and 
firm.  Some  are  without 
wings,  having  only  elytra. 
They  prey  upon  the  larvae 
of  other  beetles,  upon  her- 
bivorous beetles,  and  oth- 
er insects.  The  Genus 

CaloSOma     Contains     large  Caterpillar-Hunter,  C.  scrutator,  Fabr! 

and  splendid  species,  which  prey  upon  canker-worms. 
The  Caterpillar-Hunter,  C.  scrutator,  Fabr.,  is  green.  The 
Glowing  Calosoma,  C.  calidum,  Fabr.,  is  black,  with  six 
rows  of  sunken  brilliant  red  metallic  spots.  Fig.  312. 

DYTICID.E,  McLeay.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces aquatic  beetles  of  an  oval  or  rounded 
form,  with  the  posterior  legs  longest,  and 
strongly  fringed  to  aid  in  swimming.  They 
are  excessively  voracious  both  in  the  adult 
and  larval  state,  devouring  not  only  other 

f  Water-Beetle, 

insects,  but  also  young  fishes.  Dyticus. 

GYRINID^E,  Latr.,  OR  WHIRLIGIG-BEETLE  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  comprises  aquatic  beetles  which  have  an 
oval,  generally  glossy  and  brilliant  body,  of  small  or  of 
moderate  size,  and  which  are  found  on  the  surface  of  still 
waters,  where  they  appear  like  brilliant  spots  gliding  in 
all  sorts  of  curves  and  gyrations.  They  swim  by  means 
of  the  four  hinder  legs. 

H YDROPHiLiDjE,  Leach. — This  Family  comprises  aquat- 
ic beetles  which  are  ovate,  hemispherical,  and  with  the 
thorax  broader  than  long,  the  edges  and  the  tibiae  slight- 


422 


ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 


Fig.  313- 


ly  spined,  but  terminated  by  strong  spurs,  and  the  tarsi 
are  commonly  ciliated  so  as  to  aid  in  swimming.  They 
are  less  agile  in  swimming  than  the  Dyticidae,  and  move 
their  posterior  legs  alternately.  They  stay  in  the  water 
by  day,  but  take  wing  at  night. 

SILPHID^E,  Leach,  OR  CARRION-BEETLE  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  embraces  beetles  which  have  the  body  broad  and 
depressed,  thorax  shield-like,  mandibles  strong  and  ex- 
serted,  and  the  antennae  thickened  towards  the  tips,  and 
made  up  of  several  pieces.  These  beetles  live  together 
in  great  numbers  in  the  bodies  of  decaying  animals,  and 
thus  greatly  assist  in  removing  such  noxious  substances. 
Some  species  have  the  habit  of  burying 
all  the  small  dead  animals  which  they 
find,  and  they  find  out  with  astonishing 
quickness  where  such  animals  are ;  for 
although  a  carrion  beetle  may  not  be 
found  in  a  given  locality,  let  but  a  dead 
frog,  mouse,  or  bird  be  thrown  upon  the 
ground,  and  in  a  few  hours  these  beetles 
will  be  seen  about  it,  and  soon  they  be- 
gin to  dig  beneath  it,  and  will  continue  their  digging  till 
they  have  sunk  it  into  the  ground  out  of  sight.  The  fe- 
male then  lays  her  eggs  in  it,  so  tha"t,  when  the  young 
hatch,  they  find  themselves  in  the  midst  of  suitable  food. 
STAPHYLINID.E,  Leach,  OR  ROVE-BEETLE  FAMILY. — 
This  Family  comprises  beetles  which  are  long,  narrow, 
Fig.  314.  and  depressed,  with  the  head  large  and  flattened, 
stout  mandibles,  short  antennas,  thorax  as  wide 
as  the  abdomen,  and  the  abdomen  much  longer 
than  the  elytra.  When  touched,  or  when  they 
run,  they  elevate  the  abdomen  and  flex  it  in 
every  direction.  They  run  swiftly,  take  wing 
quickly,  are  very  voracious,  and  revel  in  all 
kinds  of  decayed  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  The 


Carrion-Beetle,  Silpha. 


Rove-Beetle, 
Staphylinus. 


COLEOPTERA:  LUCANID^E.  423 

larvae  closely  resemble  the  perfect  insects  both  in  appear- 
ance and  habits. 

HISTERIM:,  Leach,  OR  MIMIC-BEETLE  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  small  beetles  of  a  square  or  oblong- 
quadrate  form,  very  hard,  and  with  a  highly  polished  sur- 
face. The  antennae"  are  short,  elbowed  and  terminated 
by  a  large,  solid  club,  and  the  elytra  short  and  truncate. 
These  beetles  scarcely  exceed  one  third  of  an  inch  in 
length,  the  color  is  generally  black  and  shining,  and  they 
have  the  habit  of  counterfeiting  death  when  disturbed. 

DERMESTID.E,  Leach,  OR  SKIN-BEETLE  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  embraces  beetles  which  have  an  ovoid  or  oblong 
thick  body,  covered  with  scales  or  hairs,  the  head  short 
and  deeply  inserted  into  the  cavity  of  the  thorax,  and 
five-jointed  tarsi.  In  the  larva  state  they  attack  the 
skins  and  bodies  of  dried  animals  of  all  kinds,  feathers, 
furs,  dried  meats,  bacon,  horns  and  hoofs,  books,  papers, 
and  cork. 

The  Genus  Dermestes  contains  the  Bacon-Beetle,  D. 
lardarius,  Fabr.,  which  is  oblong-oval,  black,  the  base  of 
the  elytra  grayish-buff. 

The  Genus  Anthrenus  contains  A.  musceorum,  Fabr., 
which  is  met  with  in  its  perfect  state  in  flowers,  and  which 
feigns  death  the  moment  it  is  disturbed.  The  larvae  are 
very  destructive  to  zoological  collections,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  their  elongate-ovate  thick  form,  strong  horny 
jaws,  small  bundles  of  hairs  arranged  along  the  sides,  and 
the  larger  tufts  of  hair  upon  the  tail. 

BYRRHID.E,  Leach.  -  -  This  Family  comprises  beetles 
which  have  the  body  short,  oval,  or  rounded,  very  con- 
vex, and  generally  covered  with  a  short  pile. 

LUCANID.E,  Latr.,  OR  HORN-BUG  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  beetles  which  have  the  body  hard,  oblong, 
and  rounded  behind,  head  large  and  broad,  thorax  short 
and  as  wide  as  the  abdomen,  upper  jaws  large,  and 


424 


ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 


Horn-Bug,  Lucanus  dama,  Fabr. 


315-  in   some  cases  curved,  in    oth- 

ers branched,  antennae  bent  in 
the  middle,  and  composed  of  ten 
joints,  the  last  three  or  four  of 
which  are  leaf-like,  and  project 
on  the  inside.  They  fly  only  at 
night,  spending  the  day  upon 
the  trees,  and  feeding  upon  the 
leaves.  The  grubs  of  the  larger 
kinds  are  six  years  in  coming  to 
their  growth,  living  all  the 'time 
in  the  trunks  and  roots  of  trees. 
Latr.,  OR  SCARAB^IAN  FAMILY.  —  This 
very  extensive  Family  embraces  beetles  which,  though 
differing  in  many  respects,  agree  in  having  the  antennas 
ending  in  a  knob  composed  of  three  or  more  leaf-like 
pieces ;  a  projecting  plate  or  clypeus,  which  extends  for- 
wards over  the  face  like  a  visor  ;  a  short,  broad,  thick,  and 
convex  form  ;  legs  fitted  for  digging,  being  toothed  on 
their  outer  edges ;  and  feet  five-jointed.  Some  live  mainly 
upon  or  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  are  hence 
called  Ground-Beetles  ;  others  in  the  winged  state  are 
found  upon  trees,  the  leaves  of  which  they  devour,  and 
are  called  Tree-Beetles  ;  and  others,  which  in  the  perfect 
state  feed  upon  the  juices  of  flowers,  are  called  Flower- 
Beetles.  This  group  has  been  much  divided,  thus  ap- 
pearing in  some  works  as  many  distinct  families. 

The  Genus  Copris  contains  Dung- 
Beetles,  that  enclose  their  eggs  in 
pellets  of  manure,  which  they  roll 
along  with  their  hind  feet,  and  at 
length  bury  them. 

The  Genus  Phanceus  comprises 
very  brilliantly  colored  specie's,  the 
males  of  which  have  horn-like  prom- 
inences on  the  head  and  thorax. 


Fig.  316. 


Scarabseian,  Phanezus. 


COLEOPTERA:  SCARAB^ID^:.  425 

The  Genus  Geotrupes  embraces  large  green  or.  purplish 
species,  known  as  Earth-borers.  MelolontJia  and  its  allies 
include  the  Leaf-eaters,  which  have  powerful  and  horny 
jaws,  fitted  for  cutting  and  grinding  leaves. 

The  Genus  Macrodactyhis  contains  the  Rose-chafers. 

The  Common  Rose-chafer,  M.  subspinosa,  Fabr.,  is 
seven  twentieths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  covered 
with  very  short  and  close  ashen  down ;  legs  pale  red. 

The  Genus  Lachnosterna  contains  the  May-Beetles. 

The  May-Beetle,  L.  quercina,  Knoch,  is  nine  tenths  of 
an  inch  long,  chestnut-brown,  smooth,  but  finely  punc- 
tured, and  each  wing-case  has  three  slightly  elevated 
longitudinal  lines  ;  breast  clothed  with  yellowish  down. 
The  grub  is  white,  with  a  brownish  head,  attains  almost 
the  size  of  our  little  finger,  and  feeds  upon  grass  roots. 

The  Genus  Pelidnota  contains  the  Spotted  Pelidnota, 
P.  punctata,  Fabr.,  which  is  about  an  inch  long,  oval,  red- 
dish-yellow, with  three  black  spots  on  each  elytron,  and 
the  thorax  with  a  black  dot  on  each  side. 

The  Genus  Cotalpa  contains  the  splendid  Goldsmith- 
Beetle,   C.  lanigera,  Linn.,  which   is  Fig.  317. 
nearly    an    inch    long,    lemon -color 
above,  and  glittering  like  burnished 
gold  on  the  head  and  thorax  ;  under, 
side  copper-colored,  and  covered  with 
whitish  wool.    It  appears  in  spring  and 
early  summer.    It  flies  in  the  morning 
and  evening  twilight,  feeds  upon  ten- 
der leaves,   and  clings  to  the  under      Gddsmith  Beetle,  c 
side  of  the  leaves  during  the  day. 

The  Genus  Dynastes  contains  the  Hercules  Beetles  of 
South  America,  which  are  five  inches  long. 

The  Genus  Cetonia  —  Flower-Beetles  —  has  the  form 
oblong  oval,  lower  jaws  soft  on  the  inside,  and  often  pro- 
vided with  a  flat  brush  of  hairs,  upper  jaws  without  a 


426 


ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 


Fig.  318. 


Buprestis,  B.  vit 
ginica,  Drury. 


grinding-plate,  and  the  antennae  ten-jointed.     Beetles  of 
this  genus  foe'd  upon  the  juices  of  flowers,  and  pollen. 
The  Genus  Osmoderma  embraces  the  Scented  Beetles. 
The  Rough  Osmoderma,  O.  scabra,  Beauv.,  is  about 
one  inch  long,  broad,  oval,  and  flattened,  purplish  black, 
with  a  copper  lustre,  the  head  hollowed  on  top,  and  the 
wing-cases  thickly,  deeply,  and  irregularly  punctured. 
BUPRESTID.E,  Leach,  OR  BUPRESTIAN  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family    comprises    elongated,   flattened, 
very  solid  beetles,  with  the  head  sunk 
into  the  thorax  to  the  eyes,  the  antennae 
eleven-jointed,   serrate,   and    legs    short. 
Their  colors  are  brilliant,  often  metallic. 
The  Buprestians  are  diurnal,  found  on 
trunks  of  trees,  and  when  disturbed  fold 
their  legs  and  feign  death.     The  larvae 
are  wood-borers,  are  several  years  in  com- 
ing to  their  full  growth,  and  their  transformations  take 
place  within  the  trees.     Species  differing  from  one  an- 
other bore  the  peach,  plum,  oak,  pine,  and  hickory. 
ELATERID^,  Leach,  OR  SPRING-BEETLE  FAMILY. — This 
Family  comprises  beetles  which  have 
a  hard  body,  usually  tapering  behind, 
the  head  sunk  to  the  eyes  in  the  tho- 
rax, and  the  latter  as  broad  at  the 
base  as  the  wing-covers,  rounded  be- 
fore, and  the  hind  angles   short  and 
prominent.     They  are  at  once  distin- 
guished by  their  power  of  throwing 
themselves  upward  with  a  jerk  after 
they  have  been  placed  upon  the  back. 
They  perform  this  feat  by  means  of  a 
Spring-Beetle^,  ocuiatus,    spine,  the  point  of  which  fits  into  a 
cavity  behind  it,  situated  on  the  under 
side  of  the  breast,  between  the  bases  of  the  first  pair  of 


Fig.  319- 


£J:>JTC 

COLEOPTERA  I   ELATE^t^.',   f  427 

i  * .;/"  ™  p, 

legs..  When  once  upon  the  back,  th^ri^s^are  so  short 
that  they  cannot  turn  themselves  like  ofl^iasects  ;  but, 
folding  their  legs  close  to  the  body,  and 
the  head  and  thorax,  and  thus  unsheathing  the  spine, 
they  straighten  the  body  suddenly,  the  point  of  the  spine 
strikes  forcibly  upon  the  edge  of  the  sheath,  and,  acting 
like  a  spring,  throws  the  insect  upwards.  In  the  adult 
state  they  feed  mainly  upon  flowers.  The  larvae  devour 
wood  and  roots,  and  are  called  wire-worms.  Elater  is 
the  principal  genus. 

LAMPYRID.E,  Leach,  OR  FIRE-FLY  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  beetles  which  resemble  the  Elaters,  but  are 
shorter,  broader,  and  softer.  In  some  species  the  females 
are  wingless,  and  in  others  furnished  with  only  short  ely- 
tra. Some  are  carnivorous,  preying  in  the  larva  state 
upon  snails.  Many  of  the  species  are  phosphorescent, 
the  luminous  matter  occupying  the  under  side  of  a  few 
of  the  terminal  rings  ;  and  it  appears  that  the  insect  can 
vary  the  intensity  of  the  light. 

MALACHID^:,  Redt.  —  This  Family  contains  small  bee- 
tles which  have  the  body  furnished  with  extensible  vesicles. 

CLERID.E,  Kirby.  —  This  Family  comprises  beetles 
which  are  long,  often  cylindrical,  with  the  thorax  nar- 
rower than  the  elytra,  and  head  prominent.  They  are 
fast  runners,  handsomely  variegated  in  their  colors,  and 
feed  upon  juices  of  flowers.  The  larvae  are  carnivorous. 

The  Genus  Clems  has  the  elytra  of  a  bright  red  color, 
ornamented  with  purple.  The  larvae  are  destructive  to 
bees  and  wasps,  in  the  nests  of  which  the  female  de- 
posits her  eggs. 

LYMEXILLIDJE,  Leach.  —  This  small  Family  embraces 
beetles  which  have  the  body  long,  nearly  cylindrical,  softer 
than  the  Elaters,  head  broad  before,  narrowed  behind,  and 
not  sunk  into  the  thorax.  The  grubs  penetrate  timber. 
One  species  has  been  very  destructive  to  ship-timber  in 
the  North  of  Europe. 


428  ARTICULATES  '.    INSECTS. 

PTINIDJE,  Leach.  —  This  Family  comprises  small  dull- 
colored  beetles,  obtuse  at  each  end,  with  the  head  small 
and  immersed  in  the  thorax  to  the  eyes,  and  the  an- 
tennae long,  and  constantly  in  motion  when  the  insect 
is  walking.  When  disturbed  they  feign  death,  with- 
drawing their  head  and  antennae,  and  contracting  their 
legs,  and  will  suffer  themselves  to  be  pulled  to  pieces 
rather  than  show  signs  of  life. 

The  Genus  Anobius  contains  the  Death-Watches,  which 
make  a  ticking  noise,  that  is  regarded  by  the  ignorant 
with  great  superstition.  This  ticking  is  produced  during 
the  pairing  season  by  striking  their  jaws  upon  the  object 
upon  which  they  are  standing,  and  is  a  signal  which  is 
replied  to  by  the  mate. 

TENEBRIONID^E,  Latr.,  OR  MEAL-WORM  FAMILY.  — 
This  large  Family  comprises  beetles  which  have  the  body 
oblong  or  ovate,  depressed,  or  slightly  elevated,  antennae 
clavate,  feet  short,  and  the  colors  black  or  brown. 

The  Genus  Tenebrio  contains  the  species  whose  larva 
is  the  well-known  meal-worm. 

MORDELLIDJE,  Leach.  —  This  Family  comprises  small, 
wedge-shaped,  glistening,  pubescent,  black  beetles,  which 
are  found  upon  flowers,  and  which,  when  disturbed,  leap 
like  fleas.  The  larvae  live  in  the  pith  of  plants. 

MELOID/E,  Gyllenh.,  OR  BLISTERING-BEETLE  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  comprises  beetles  which  are  mainly  soft, 
and  celebrated  for  secreting  cantharidine,  a  blistering 
property,  which  has  caused  them  to  be  extensively  used 
in  pharmacy.  They  are  also  remarkable  in  the  succes- 
sive forms  of  the  larvae,  in  the  first  of  which  they  are  very 
small  active  parasites,  infesting  bees.  The  adults  are 
called  Cantharides.  They  have  the  head  broad,  antennae 
long,  wing-covers  soft  and  more  or  less  bent  downward, 
and  they  feign  death  when  alarmed.  The  Genus  Can- 
tkaris,  or  Lytta,  contains  the  principal  species. 


COLEOPTERA  :   CURCULIONID,E.  429     ^ 

The  Striped  .Cantharis,  C.  vittata,  Harr.,  is  about  half 
an  inch  long,  and  light  yellowish-red  above,  with  two 
black  spots  on  the  head,  and  two  black  stripes  on  the 
thorax  and  on  each  wing-cover ;  under  parts  black,  cov- 
ered with  a  grayish  down.  The  Margined  Cantharis,  C. 
marginata,  Olivier,  is  over  half  an  inch  long,  wing-covers 
black,  with  a  narrow  gray  margin.  The  Ash-colored 
Cantharis,  L.  Fabricii,  LeC,  and  the  Black  Cantharis,  L. 
atrata,  Fabr.,  each  about  half  an  inch  long,  are  also  com- 
mon species.  The  Spanish  Fly,  C.  vesicatorius  of  authors, 
inhabits  the  South  of  Europe,  and  is  golden  green. 

The  Genus  Meloe  contains  the  Narrow-necked  Oil-Bee- 
tle, M.  angusticollis,  Say,  an  inch  long,  color  Prussian-blue. 

STYLOPID^E,  Kirby.  —  This  Family  comprises  small 
beetles  which  at  first  sight  seem  to  bear  no  resem- 
blance to  the  other  coleoptera,  and  which  were  for- 
merly regarded  as  a  distinct  order,  named  Strepsiptera. 
They  are  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  the  ely- 
tra pad-like,  but  the  hind  wings  are  greatly  developed. 
They  are  parasite  in  various  aculeate  hymenoptera. 

CURCULIONIM;,  Latr.,  CURCULIO  OR  WEEVIL  FAMILY. 
— This  Family  embraces  hard-shelled  beetles  which  have 
the  fore  part  of  the  head  prolonged  into  a  broad  muzzle 
or  a  longer  and  slender  snout,  at  the  extremity  of  which 
is  the  mouth,  armed  with  small  horny  jaws.  They  are 
exceedingly  numerous  in  genera  and  species,  and  in  many 
cases  very  minute.  They  are  timid,  and  quickly  feign 
death  when  disturbed.  The  larvae  are  white,  thick  grubs. 

The  Genus  Bnichus  contains  the  Pea- Wee-  Fig  320< 
vil,  B.  pisi,  Linn.,  which  lays  its  eggs  on  the 
pea  when  in  flower,  and  the  larva  enters  the 
pea  through  the  green  pod,  and  remains  there 
till  the  following  spring,  when  it  emerges  as 
an  imago.  Harris  says  that  the  Baltimore  Ori- 
ole  splits  open  the  green  pods  for  the  sake  of  Linn- 


430 


ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 


White-Pine  Weevil, 
Jf.  strobi,  Peck. 


Fig.  322. 


obtaining  the  grubs  contained  in  the 
peas. 

The  Genus  RJiyncJiccnus  has  the  snout 
long  and  slender,  and  the  antennae  near 
the  middle  of  it. 

The  White-Pine  Weevil,  R.  strobi, 
Peck,  bores  the  pine  when  in  the  lar- 
val state. 

The  Long-snouted  Nut-Weevil,  R.  nasicus,  Say,  attacks 
nuts  while  it  is  in  the  grub  state. 

The  Genus  Ciirculio  contains  the  Plum- 
Weevil,  C.  nenuphar,  Herbst,  about  one 
fifth  of  an  inch  long  exclusive  of  the 
snout,  rough,  dark-colored,  and,  when 
shaken  from  the  tree,  appearing  like  a 
dried  bud.  This  beetle  makes  a  crescent- 
shaped  incision  with  its  snout  in  the 
surface  of  the  plum,  and  then  lays  an 
egg  in  the  wound  ;  and  it  goes  from  one 
plum  to  another  till  the  stock  of  eggs 

is  exhausted,  so  that  where  the  beetles  are 
plentiful  not  a  plum  escapes  stinging.  From 
the  egg  there  hatches  a  whitish  grub,  desti- 
tute of  feet,  and  with  a  rounded  light  brown 
head,  which  immediately  burrows  into  the 
fruit,  and  ultimately  penetrates  to  the  stone. 
^ne  Genus  Cttlandra  comprises  beetles 
which  attack  stored  wheat,  corn,  and  rice. 
They  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  grain,  and  the  larvae,  as 
soon  as  hatched,  burrow  into  the  kernel,  destroying  every- 
thing except  the  hull,  which  is  left  entire,  so  that  the 
injury  done  is  not  perceived  till  the  lightness  of  the  ker- 
nel reveals  it. 

The  Grain  Weevil,  C.  granarius,  Linn.,  of  Europe,  is 
about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long,  and  pitchy-red.      A 


Long-snouted  Nut- 
Weevil,  R.  nastcuSy 
Say. 


Fig  323 


COLEOPTERA:  CERAMBYCID^E.  431 

single  pair  may  have  six  thousand  descendants 
in  a  single  year. 

The  Rice  Weevil,  C.  oryz(Zy  Linn,  is  about 
one  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  with  two  red  spots 
on  each  wing-cover.  It  not  only  attacks  rice, 
but  wheat  and  Indian  corn.  In  the  Southern 
States  it  is  called  Black  Weevil. 

CERAMBYCID^K,  Leach,  OR  CAPRICORN-BEETLE  FAMILY. 
—  This  Family  comprises  beetles  which  have  the  anten- 
nae very  long,  tapering,  and  generally  curved  like  the 
horns  of  a  goat.  When  caught,  they  make  a  squeaking 
noise  by  rubbing  the  joints  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen 
together.  In  the  larva  state  they  are  the  most  destruc- 
tive of  all  wood-eating  insects,  and  are  known  as  borers. 
They  are  long,  whitish,  and  fleshy,  and  provided  with 
short,  powerful  jaws,  by  which  they  bore  a  cylindrical 
passage  through  the  hardest  wood.  Some  species  always 
keep  one  end  of  their  burrows-  open,  out  of  which  they 
cast  their  chips  ;  others,  as  fast  as  they  proceed,  fill  their 
passages  behind  them  with  their  cuttings,  which  are  the 
well-known  powder-post.  They  ^  Fig.  325. 

remain  in  the  larva  state  from 
one  to  three  or  more  years,  then 
go  into  the  pupa  state  at  the 
extremity  of  their  burrows,  and 
at  length  appear  as  beetles. 
They  are  popularly-  known  as 
Long-horns. 

The  Genus  Prionus  has  the 
antennae  composed  of  flattened 
joints,  which  project  on  the  in- 
side like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 

The    Broad-necked    Prionus, 
P.  laticollis,  Drury,  is  an  inch         Prionus,  p.  laticoins, 
and  three  quarters  long,  black,  and  the  larva  lives  in  the 
trunk  of  the  poplar. 


432  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

The  Genus  Stenocorus  has  the  wing-covers  narrow,  and 
notched  or  armed  with  two  little  thorns  at  the  tip,  and 
the  antennae  very  long. 

The  Oak-Primer,  5.  villostts,  Fabr.,  is  about  half  an 
inch  long,  slender,  dull  brown  sprinkled  with  gray  spots, 
scut  el  yellowish-white,  the  third  and  fourth  joints  of  the 
antennae  tipped  with  a  small  spine.  It  lays  its  eggs  in 
July,  placing  each  one  in  the  joint  of  a  leaf-stalk,  near 
the  extremity  of  a  branch.  As  soon  as  the  larva  is 
hatched,  it  penetrates  to  the  pith,  and  then  moves  to- 
wards the  body  of  the  tree,  devouring  the  pith  as  it  goes. 
At  the  close  of  the  summer,  it  has  moved  several  inches  ; 
and  now,  having  arrived  at  its  full  growth,  it  cuts  out  all 
the  wood  at  the  lower  extremity  of  its  burrow,  leaving 
only  the  bark  to  sustain  the  branch  ;  then,  retiring  a  little, 
it  stops  up  the  downward  end  of  its  burrow,  and  awaits 
the  fall  of  the  branch,  which  takes  place  during  the  first 
strong  wind.  Branches  an  inch  in  diameter  and  several 
feet  in  length  are  thus  cut  off.  The  larva  goes  into  the 
pupa  state  in  the  spring,  and  comes  out  a  beetle  in  June. 
The  Genus  Clytus  contains  capricorn-beetles  which  are 
beautifully  colored  with  black  and  yellow.  They  are  seen 
in  great  numbers  upon  flowers  and  upon  the  trunks  of 
the  locust-trees  in  the  early  autumn. 

The  Painted  Clytus,  C.flexuosus,  Fabr.,  is  about  three 
Fig.  326.  quarters  of  an  inch  long.  The  Beautiful  Cly- 
tus, C.  spec^os^is)  Say,  is  an  inch  long,  and  lays 
its  eggs  on  the  trunk  of  the  maple  in  July  and 
August.  It  is  the  largest  known  Clytus. 

The  Genus  Lamia  contains  the  Tickler,  L. 
titillator,  Fabr.,  which  is  about  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  in  length,  brownish,  mottled  with  spots 

sus,  Fabr.          Qf  ^^^  ^^  ^  antenn3g  Qf  tne  ma]e  are  about 

twice  as  long  as  the  body.  It  gets  its  name  from  its  habit 
of  gently  touching  with  the  tips  of  its  long  antennae  the 
surface  over  which  it  walks. 


COLEOPTERA'I    CHRYSOMELID.E.  433 

The  Genus  Saperda  contains  the  Apple-tree  Borer,  5. 
bivittata.  Say,  which  in  the  beetle  state  is  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  long,  brown  above;  and  marked  with 
two  white  longitudinal  stripes.  It  lays  Fig.  327.^ 

its  eggs  on  the  bark,  near  the  roots  of 
the  tree.     The  larvae  are  whitish,  near- 

App!e-tree  Borer,  larva, 

ly  cylindrical,  and  tapering  from  the        s.  bi-vittata,  say. 
first  ring  to  the  hind  extremity.    The  head  is  small,  horny, 
and  of  a  brown  color.   Their  jaws  are  strong,  and  with  them 
they  cut  a  cylindrical  passage  through  Fig.328 

the  bark,  pushing  their  cuttings  back- 
ward, and  in  the  course  of  the  two  or 
three  years  in  which  they  remain  in  the 
larva  state,  they  penetrate  eight  or  ten 
inches  upward   into  the   trunk  of  the 
tree,  and  end  their  burrow  just  under        Apoie-tree 
the  bark.     Here  they  go  through  their 
transformation,  which  is  completed  in  June,  and  the  bee- 
tle gnaws  through  the  bark,  which  is  all  that  covers  it. 

The  Genus  Leptura  contains  Capricorn  beetles  which 
have  the  body,  in  most  cases,  narrowed  behind,  and  the 
antennae  implanted  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead. 

The  Genus  Desmocerus  contains  the  Cloaked  Lepturian, 
D.  palliatus,  Harr.,  which  is  of  a  Prussian-blue  color,  with 
one  half  of  the  fore  part  of  the  wing-covers  orange  yel- 
low. The  larvae  live  in  the  lower  parts  of  elder-stems. 

CHRYSOMELID^:,  Leach>  OR  CHRYSOMELA  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  embraces  beetles  which  have  a  hemispher- 
ical or  ovate  form,  small  and  sunken  head,  and  antennae 
inserted  wide  apart.  They  are  blue,  green,  and  golden. 

The  Genus  Lema  contains  the  Three-lined  Leaf-Beetle, 
L.  trilineata,  Olivier,  which  is  one  fourth  of  an  inch  long, 
rusty  buff,  with  two  black  dots  on  the  thorax,  and  three 
black  stripes  on  the  wing-covers.  Beetles  of  this  species 
appear  in  June  on  the  leaves  of  the  potato,  gnawing  large 
19  B  B 


434  ARTICULATES  :  'INSECTS. 

and  irregular  holes  through  them.     Soon  they  begin  to 
lay  their  oblong-oval  and  golden-yellow  eggs,  gluing  them 
to  the  leaves  in  groups  of  six  or  eight.     Their  filthy  grubs 
are  hatched  in  about  a  fortnight,  and  after  feeding  upon 
the  potato  leaves  for  about  fifteen  days,  enter  the  ground, 
pass  into  the  pupa  state,  remain  two  weeks,  and  then  come 
forth  perfect  beetles,  which  lay  eggs  for  a  new  brood. 
Fig  32        The  Genus  Galeruca  contains  the  Squash  or  Cu- 
cumber Beetle,  G.  vittata,  Fabr.,  less  than  one  fifth 
of  an  inch  long,  light  yellow,  with  a  black  head 
and  three  black  longitudinal  stripes  ;  black  below. 
2tie.      Thg  Genus  Chrysomela  is  very  gayly  colored. 
Fig.  33o.  The  Ladder  Chrysomela,  C.  scalaris,  LeC,  is 

about  three  tenths  of  an  inch  long,  the  head, 
thorax,  and  under  part  of  the  body  dark  green.; 
wing-covers  silvery-white,  with  green  spots  on 
tne  sides,  and  a  broad  green  jagged  stripe  along 
LeC.      their  inner  edges  ;  antennae  and  legs  red. 
The  Blue-winged  Chrysomela,  C.  ccemleipennis,  Say,  is 
about  one  seventh  of  an  inch  long. 

The  Gilded  Eumolpus,  E.  auratus,  Fabr.,  is  golden 
green,  and  about  three  eighths  of  an  inch  long. 

The  Genus  Cassida  contains  the  Tortoise  Beetles,  which 
are  broad,  oval,  or  rounded,  nearly  flat,  and  with  the  tho- 
rax projecting  over  the  head. 

The  Genus  Hispa  contains  little  Leaf-Beetles,  which  are 
rough  above,  and  whose  larvae  burrow  under  the  skin  of 
the  leaves  of  plants,  especially  of  the  apple  and  its  allies. 
The  Genus  Haltica  embraces  the  Flea-Beetles,  little 
shiny  black  leaping  species,  which  injure  leaves. 

COCCINELLID^:,  Latr.,  OR  LADY-BUG  FAMILY.  —  This 
Fig.  33i.  Family  comprises  hemispherical  beetles,  which 
are  black,  red,  or  yellow,  with  round  or  lunate 
spots.  Both  in  the  perfect  and  larva  state 
Lady-bug,  they  devour  plant-lice.  When  about  to  become 
chrysalids,  they  attach  themselves  to  a  leaf. 


HEMIPTERA  I    CICADARLE.  435 

SUB-SECTION   V. 

THE  SUB-ORDER  OF  HEMIPTERA,  OR  BUGS,  CICADAS,  ETC. 

THIS  Sub -Order  embraces  insects  which  have  the 
mouth-parts  in  the  form  of  a  slender  horny  beak,  con- 
sisting of  a  horny  sheath,  containing  three  stiff  and  in- 
tensely sharp  bristles.  When  not  in  use,  this  beak  is 
bent  under  the  body,  and  lies  upon  the  breast. 

The  Hemiptera .comprise  two  great  groups, — the  true 
Hemiptera,  which  are  designated  as  Hemiptera  hetero- 
ptera,  and  include  all  insects  properly  called  Bugs ;  and 
Hemiptera  homoptera,  which  contain  all  insects  properly 
called  Harvest-flies,  Plant-lice,  and  Bark-lice. 

The  Hemiptera  heteroptera,  or  Bugs,  have  the  wing- 
covers  thick  in  their  basal  portion,  thin  towards  their 
tips,  and  lying  flat  on  the  top  of  the  back,  and  the  thin 
portions  crossing  each  other. 

The  Hemiptera  homoptera  have  the  wing-covers  of 
uniform  thickness  throughout,  and  not  lying  flat  upon  the 
back,  nor  crossing  each  other  at  their  extremities,  and 
both  the  wings  and  wing-covers  are  more  or  less  sloping 
at  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  families  of  the  two  groups 
are  arranged  according  to  Westwood,  with  the  addition 
of  Thripsidae  and  Pediculi  to  the  sub-order. 

CICADARLE-,  Latr.,  CICADA,  OR  HARVEST-FLY  FAMILY. 
—  This  Family  comprises  homopterous  insects  which 
have  very  broad  heads,  large  and  convex  eyes  on  each 
side,  and  three  eyelets  on  the  crown.  Their  wing-covers 
and  wings  are  both  transparent,  and  distinctly  veined. 
The  males  are  provided  with  an  apparatus  by  which  they 
are  enabled  to  produce  an  exceedingly  loud  and  shrill 
buzzing  sound,  which  in  some  species  may  be  heard  at 
the  distance  of  a  mile ;  and  the  females  are  furnished 
with  a  unique  kind  of  piercer  for  perforating  the  limbs 
of  trees,  in  which  they  lay  their  eggs.  The  organs  which 


436  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

enable  the  male  to  produce  its  music  consist  of  a  pair 
of  kettle-drums,  one  in  each  side  of  the  abdomen,  formed 
of  convex  pieces  of  parchment  finely  plaited,  and  played 
by  means  of  muscular  fibres  fastened  to  the  inside.  By 
the  rapid  contraction  and  relaxation  of  these  fibres,  the 
drum-heads  are  alternately  tightened  and  loosened,  and 
thus  the  sounds  are  produced  ;  while  other  cavities  in  the 
body,  separated  by  thin,  transparent,  and  brilliant  mem- 
branes, assist  greatly  in  increasing  the  intensity  of  the 
sounds.  The  piercer  of  the  female  consists  of  three 
pieces,  two*  outer  ones  grooved  on  the  inside  and  toothed 
on  the  outside  like  a  saw,  and  a  central  one,  a  spear- 
pointed  borer,  which  plays  between  the  other  two.  The 
Greeks  were  charmed  with  the  singing  of  the  Cicadae, 
and  often  kept  them  in  cages,  that  they  might  enjoy 
their  music.  They  ate  both  the  pupae  and  the  perfect 
insect. 

The  Genus  Cicada  contains  all  the  species,  of  which 
there  is  a  score  or  more  in  this  country. 

The  Seventeen-year  Cicada,  C.  septendecim,  Linn.,  is 

Fig.  332- 


Seventeen-year  Cicada,  C.  septendecim,  Linn. 

about  an  inch  long,  black,  the  wing-covers  and  wings 
transparent,  with  the  forward  edges  and  larger  veins 
and  eyes  orange-red,  and  near  the  tips  of  the  wing-covers 
there  is  a  dusky  zigzag  line.  This  species  is  popularly 
known  as  the  Seventeen-year  Locust,  a  name  which 
should  be  at  once  abandoned,  as  the  present  species  does 


HEMIPTERA:  CICADARLE.  437 

not  even  belong  to  the  same  sub-order  as  the  Locust.  It 
is  believed  that  this  insect  appears  in  the  same  locality 
only  at  intervals  of  seventeen  years,  and  hence  its  spe- 
cific name.  .  It  makes  its  appearance  in  the  early  part  of 
summer.  Sometimes  the  cicadas  of  this  species  come  in 
such  immense  swarms  as  to  bend,  and  even  break,  the 
limbs  of  the  forest  upon  which  they  alight,  and  the  woods 
are  filled  from  morning  till  night  with  the  noise  of  their 
rattling  drums.  After  pairing,  the  females  proceed  to 
lay  their  eggs,  which  they  accomplish  as  follows:  they 
select  small  branches,  which  they  clasp  with  their  legs, 
and  then  repeatedly  thrust  their  piercer  obliquely  into 
the  bark  and  wood  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres,  and  at 
the  same  time,  by  means  of  their  lateral  saws,  they  de- 
tach little  splinters  of  the  wood  at  one  end,  which*  serve 
as  a  fibrous  cover  to  the  perforations.  By  repeated 
thrusts  they  form  a  longitudinal  fissure  capable  of  hold- 
ing from  ten  to  twenty  eggs,  which  are  conveyed  into 
the  nest  by  means  of  the  grooved  side-pieces  of  the 
piercer,  and  deposited  in  pairs,  but  separated  from  each 
other  by  woody  fibre,  and  placed  so  that  one  end  points 
upward.  When  one  fissure  is  filled,  the  insect  makes 
another  close  by  on  the  same  limb  ;  and  when  one  limb 
is  sufficiently  stocked  with  eggs,  she  takes  another,  and 
thus  continues  till  her  store  of  eggs,  consisting  of  four  or 
five  hundred,  is  laid.  Soon  afterwards  she  dies.  The 
eggs  are  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  long,  pearly  white,  and 
hatch  in  fourteen,  forty-two,  or  fifty-two  days,  author- 
ities differing  in  regard  to  the  number.  Soon  after  they 
are  hatched  the  young  fall  to  the  ground,  where  they 
immediately  bury  themselves,  burrowing  by  means  of 
their  broad,  strong  fore-feet,  which  are  perfectly  adapted 
for  digging.  They  follow  the  roots  of  plants,  upon  whose 
juices  they  feed.  They  continue  this  sort  of  life  till  their 
time  of  transformation  approaches,  when  they  gradually 


ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

ascend  towards  the  surface,  making  circuitous,  cylindrical 
passages,  about  five  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
When  the  time  comes,  they  leave  the  ground  in  the 
night,  crawl  up  the  trunks  of  trees,  and,  after  resting 
awhile,  prepare  to  shed  their  skins,  which  have  now  be- 
come dry.  After  some  effort,  they  open  a  longitudinal 
fissure  in  the  skin  of  the  back,  and  through  this  opening 
the  full-grown  and  perfect  cicada  comes  forth,  leaving  its 
empty  pupa-skin  still  attached  to  the  tree. 

The  Dog-day  Harvest-Fly,  C.  canicularis,  Harr.,  is  over 
an  inch  long,  the  body  black  above,  ornamented  with 
olive-green,  and  the  under  side  covered  more  or  less  with 


Fig-  333- 


Dog-day  Harvest-Fly,  C.  canicularis,  Harr. 

a  white  substance  resembling  flour.  It  makes  its  appear- 
ance with  the  beginning  of  dog-days,  and  its  singing 
may  be  heard  among  the  trees  through  the  middle  of 
the  day,  The  pupas  of  this  species,  as  well  as  of  the  pre- 
,  ceding,  as  they  come  out  of  the  ground  and  crawl  up  the 
trees,  look  like  large  beetles. 

FULGORID^E,  Leach,  OR  LANTERN-FLY  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  insects  which  are  distinguished  by  a 
curious  prolongation  of  the  forehead,  which  in  some  cases 
equals  all  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  is  the  part  asserted 
by  writers  to  emit  a  strong  light  by  night.  They  belong 
mainly  to  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions.  They  pro- 


HEMIPTERA  :    APHID^.  439 

duce  a  waxy  secretion,  and  the  Chinese  collect  this  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  white  wax  so  highly  esteemed  in 
the  East  Indies. 

CERCOPID^E,  Leach,  OR  TREE-HOPPER*  FAMILY.  —  This 
extensive  Family  compris-  Fig.  334. 

es  hemiptera  homoptera  of 
small  size,  well  fitted  for 
leaping,  and  which  are 
found  amongst  plants  and 

,  -i  r          Two-spotted  Tree-hopper,  Membracis 

on  trees,   upon  the  sap  of  bimacidata,  Fabr. 

which  they  subsist,  imbibing  such  quantities,  in  many 
cases,  that  it  oozes  out  of  their  bodies  continually  in  the 
form  of  little  bubbles,  and  covering  the  insect  entirely  in 
a  mass  of  frothy  matter  or  foam.  Many  of  them  are  re- 
markable for  their  singular  and  even  grotesque  shapes. 
They  are  known  as  Tree-hoppers  and  Frog-hoppers.  Figs. 
334  and  335  represent  one  species,  the  first  being  an  en- 
larged profile  view,  the  other  of  the  natural  size. 

APHID^,  Leach,  OR  APHIS  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  hemiptera  homoptera  which  have  the  body 
short,  and  furnished  at  the  hind  extremity  with  two  lit- 
tle tubes  or  pores,  from  which  exude  minute  drops  of  a 
very  sweet  fluid.  Their  upper  wings  are  Fig.  336. 

much  longer  than  the  body,  about  twice 
as  large  as  the  lower  ones,  nearly  trian- 
gular, and,  when  at  rest,  almost  vertical. 
Aphides,  or  Plant-lice,  inhabit  all  kinds  Aphis"4'  "^  Harr 
of  plants,  the  leaves  and  softer  portions  being  often  com- 
pletely covered  with  them.  The  young  are  hatched  in  the 
spring,  and  soon  come  to  maturity,  and,  what  is  remarkable, 
the  whole  brood  consists  of  wingless  females ;  and  what 
is  still  more  remarkable,  these  females  bring  forth  living 
young,  each  female  producing  fifteen  or  twenty  in  a  day. 
These  young  are  also-  wingless  females,  and  at  maturity 
bring  forth  living  young,  which  are  also  all  wingless  fe- 


44°  ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 

males,  and  in  their  turn  bring  forth  living  young  ;  and  in 
this  way  brood  after  brood  is  produced,  even  to  the  four- 
teenth generation,  in  a  single  season,  and  this  without 
the  appearance  of  a  single  male.  But  the  last  brood  in 
autumn  contains  both  males  and  females,  which  at  length 
have  wings,  pair,  stock  the  plants  with  eggs,  and  then  per- 
ish. Reaumur  has  proved  that  a  single  aphis  in  five  gen- 
erations may  become  the  progenitor  of  about  six  thousand 
millions  of  descendants.  Wherever  plant-lice  abound, 
ants  collect  to  feed  upon  the  honey-like  fluid  produced  by 
them  ;  and  the  most  friendly  relations  exist  between  these 
two  kinds  of  insects.  The  ants  even  caress  the  plant-lice 
with  their  antennae,  apparently  soliciting  them  to  give 
out  the  sweet  fluid,  and  the  plant-lice  yield  to  these  solici- 
tations ;  and  a  single  aphis  has  been  known  to  give  in 
succession  a  drop  to  each  of  a  number  of  ants  waiting  to 
receive  it !  In  return,  the  ants  take  the  kindest  care  of 
the  plant-lice,  warding  off  or  removing  anything  that 
might  be  injurious  to  them.  Plant-lice  are  kept  in  check 
by  the  beetles  called  Lady-bugs,  already  described. 

The  Genus  Eriosoma  contains  Downy  Plant-lice,  or 
those  which  have  a  sort  of  woolly  or  cottony  covering. 

CocciDyE,  Fallen,  OR  BARK-LICE  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  small  insects,  which,  in  the  form  of  oval, 
rounded,  or  other  shaped  scales  or  shields,  cover  the  bark 
of  the  stems  and  branches,  and,  in  some  cases,  the  leaves 
and  roots  of  plants.  The  males  alone  are  winged,  and 
pass  through  the  usual  changes,  while  the  females  in- 
crease in  size,  always  keeping  the  scale-like  form.  The 
Genus  Coccus  is  the  principal  one. 

C.  ilicis,  Linn.,  lives  on  a  low  shrub  of  the  Levant,  and 
is  the  insect  which  supplied  the  famous  dye  KOKKOS  of  the 
Greeks,  Coccus  of  the  Romans,  Kermes  of  the  Arabs, 
Cocchi  of  the  Italians,  and  Alkermes  of  the  Persians. 
The  Scarlet  Grain,  of  Poland,  C.  polonicus,  Linn.,  was 


HEMIPTERA  :   COCCIDJE.  44! 

also  employed  as  a  dye.  The  Cochineal,  C.  cacti,  Linn., 
of  Mexico,  lives  upon  the  cactus,  and  is  collected  in  such 
quantities,  that  800,000  pounds  of  this  insect  have  been 
shipped  to  Europe  in  a  single  year. 

C.  lacca,  Kerr,  is  the  species  which  furnishes  the  Indian 
material  called  lac.  The  female  attaches  itself  to  the 
twigs  of  various  trees,  and  in  this  state  is  called  stick-lac  ; 
when  separated  and  pounded,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
coloring  matter  extracted,  it  is  called  seed-lac;  when 
formed  into  cakes,  lump-lac;  and  when  strained  and 
formed  into  thin  leaves,  shell-lac. 

C.  manniparus,  Ehren.,  is  found  on  Tamarix,  a  large  tree 
growing  on  Mount  Sinai,  the  shoots  of  which  are  covered 
with  females,  which  puncture  them,  and  thus  cause  them 
to  discharge  a  gummy  secretion,  which  quickly  hardens 
and  drops  from  the  tree,  and  is  collected  by  the  natives, 
who  regard  it  as  the  real  manna. 

NOTONECTID.E,  Latr.,  OR  BOAT-FLY  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  hemiptera  proper  which  are  aquatic,  be- 
ing specially  formed  for  swimming,  the 
hind  pair  of  legs  being  greatly  elongated 
and  strongly  ciliated.  They  are  remark- 
able for  the  habit  of  swimming  on  their 
backs.  They  prey  upon  other  insects. 

NEPID;E,    -Leach,    OR    SCORPION- BUG 
FAMILY.  —  This  Family  embraces  aquat- 
ic  bugs  which  have  the  body  oval  and 
much    depressed.      They   are   rapacious, 
and  seize  their  prey  with  the  fore  legs,         Scorp,on-Bug, 
which  flex  upon  thejnselves  and  act  as        f^g*?** 
piercers.     They  can  sting  severely. 

HYDROMETRID.E,  Leach,  OR  WATER-MEASURER  FAMILY. 

—  This  Family  embraces  hemiptera  proper  which  have 

the  body  long  and  narrow,  and  which  differ  in  their  habits 

from  all  the  rest  of  the  sub-order,  being  always  founcl 

19* 


442  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

upon  the  surface  of  standing  or  running  waters,  upon 
which  they  move  backwards  or  forwards  with  the  great- 
est facility.  The  Genus  Gerris  is  the  most  active.  It 
is  long  and  narrow,  and  wherry-shaped. 

COREID^E,  Leach,  OR  SQUASH-BUG  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  bugs  which  have  the  body  oblong  oval.  The 
Genus  Corens  contains  the  common  Squash-Bug,  C.  tristis, 
Fig.  338.  DeGeer,  which  is  six  tenths  of  an  inch  long, 
rusty  black  above,  dingy  ochre-yellow  be- 
neath. It  passes  the  winter  in  crevices 
and  holes,  in  a  torpid  state ;  and  when 
the  vines  of  the  squash  put  forth  a  few 
rough  leaves,  it  collects  beneath  them,  and 
soon  begins  to  lay  eggs,  which  it  fastens  in 

Squash-Bug,  C.  J 

tristis,  DeGeer.      clusters  to  the  under  side. 

The  Genus  Lygceus  contains  the  Chinch-Bug,  or  White- 
winged  Lygaeus,  L.  leucopterus,  Say,  three  twentieths  of 
an  inch  long,  the  wing-covers  white,  and  each  with  a  cen- 
tral line  and  a  marginal  oval  spot  of  black. 

THRIPSID.E,  Westwood.  —  This  Family  contains  very 
minute  insects  with  the  body  long  and  depressed,  and 
eyes  large.  They  are  very  agile,  leaping  when  disturbed, 
and  they  attack  leaves,  melons,  cucumbers,  and  beans, 
causing  them  to  be  covered  with  decayed  patches. 

CIMICIM:,  Westwood,  OR  CIMEX  FAMILY. — This. Fam- 
ily comprises  bugs  which  have  the  .body  very  flat,  and 
their  antennae  terminating  abruptly  in  the  form  of  a  seta. 
The  Genus  Cimex  contains  the  Bed-Bug,  C.  lectnlarius, 
Linn.,  a  representative  of  this  family  too  well  known  to 
need  description.  It  is  found  in  all  countries  and  is  not 
confined  to  houses,  though  there  unfortunately  we  oftenest 
find  it.  It  is  also  found  in  the  pine  forests  of  both  hemi- 
spheres ;  but  from  what  country  it  originally  came  is 
unknown.  Bed-Bugs  flourish  in  a  warm  temperature, 
but  are  not  killed  by  freezing,  and  they  have  been  kept 
alive  six  years  without  food. 


ORTHOPTERA  :    FORFICULARI.E.  443 

PEDICULID^:,  Leach,  OR  LICE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  degraded  wingless  hemiptera,  which  have  the 
mouth-parts  in  the  form  of  a  fleshy  retractile  sucker. 

The  Genus  Pediculus  contains  those  which  are  para- 
sitic on  man,  and  some  of  the  brutes.  Different  varieties 
are  found  on  the  different  races  of  men.  The  Genus 
Mallophaga  includes  those  that  live  on  birds. 

SUB-SECTION  VI. 

THE  SUB-ORDER  OF  ORTHOPTERA,  OR  STRAIGHT-WINGED  INSECTS. 

THE  Sub-Order  of  Orthoptera  embraces  insects  whose 
wings  lie  straight  along  the  top  or  sides  of  the  back,  the 
upper  ones  being  somewhat  thick  and  opaque,  and  some- 
times slightly  overlapping,  and  the  under  ones  larger, 
thin,  and  folded  in  plaits  like  a  fan.  They  do  not  under- 
go a  complete  transformation  in  coming  to  maturity,  but 
the  young  are  constantly  active,  feeding  and  growing,  and 
differ  from  the  adults  only  in  size,  and  in  having  only  the 
rudiments  of  wings,  and  in  frequently  changing  their 
skins.  At  length,  having  shed  their  skins  for  the  sixth 
and  last  time,  they  come  forth  perfect  insects,  without 
having  passed  through  the  inactive  phase  of  the  pupa 
state.  The  families  are  arranged  according  to  Latreille. 

FORFICULARI.E,  Latr.,  OR  EARWIG  FAMILY. — This  Fam- 
ily comprises  orthopterous  insects  which  have  the  body 
long,  somewhat  flattened,  and  armed  at  Fig 
the  hind  extremity  with  a  pair  of  slender 
sharp-pointed  blades  or  nippers,  which 
open  and  shut  horizontally.  They  pre- 
fer cool  and  damp  places,  collect  under 
stones  and  the  bark  of  trees,  creep  into 
crevices,  fly  at  night,  devour  fruits,  and 
defend  themselves  with  their  pincers.  It 
has  been  said  that  they  crawl  into  the  ear.  Earwig' 


444 


ARTICULATES  I   INSECTS. 


Cockroach,  B.  orientates, 

Linn. 


BLATTARI.E,  Latr.,   OR  COCKROACH   FAMILY.  —  This 
Fig.  340.  Family  contains  orthopterous  insects 

which  have  the  body  oval,  flattened, 
the  hind  extremity  of  the  abdomen 
furnished  with  conical  articulated 
appendages,  and  the  antennas  long 
and  many-jointed.'  Cockroaches  are 
nocturnal,  and  are  found  not  only  in 
forests,  but  some  species  infest  kitch- 
ens, store-rooms,  and  closets,  devour- 
ing all  kinds  of  provisions,  and  even 
fabrics.  The  Genus  Blatta  contains 
-the  species,  of  which  we  have  several 
that  are  indigenous,  and  one,  B.  orien- 
talis,  Linn.,  which  originated  in  Asia. 
PHASMIDA,  Leach,  OR  WALKING-STICK  FAMILY.  —  This 
Fig.  34i.  Family  comprises  orthoptera  which 

are  at  once  distinguished  by  their 
very  close  resemblance  to  vegetable 
structures.  Some  appear  like  dry 
twigs  ;  others  have  wings  which  al- 
most exactly  resemble  green  or  dry 
leaves.  They  are  sluggish  in  their 
movements,  and  are  found  princi- 
pally in  warm  regions,  though  sev- 
eral species  belong  to  temperate 
climes.  Three  or  more  are  found 
in  North  America.  Some  of  the 
tropical  species  are  very  large,  even 
a  foot  in  length. 

The  Genus  Diaphomcra  contains 
D.  femorata,  Scudd.,  four  inches 
long,  which  is  one  of  our  most  com- 
mon species.  It  is  the  Spectrum 


Walking-stick,  D.  femorata, 
Scudd.     Reduced  one  half. 


femoratum  of  Say. 


ORTHOPTERA  :  MANTID.E. 


445 


MANTID.E,  Latr.,  OR  MANTIS  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
embraces  .orthoptera  which  are  much  elongated,  and 
whose  fore  legs  are  formed  for  seizing  and  holding  prey. 
They  are  found  upon  plants  and  trees,  where  they  sit  for 
hours  with  the  front'  part  of  the  thorax  elevated,  and  the 

Fig.  342- 


Fig.  343- 


Fig.  344- 


American  Mantis,  M.  Carolina  of  authors. 

fore  legs  held  up  together  like  a  pair  of  arms,  prepared  to 

seize  any  insect  which  may  come  within  reach.     Some  of 

the  superstitious  inhabitants  of  Eastern  countries  believe 

that  the  Mantis  in  this  attitude  is  engaged  in  devotion. 

The  Genus  Mantis  contains  our  only  species,  Fig.  342. 

GRYLLIDES,  Latr.,  OR  CRICKET  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 

comprises  orthoptera 

which  have  an  oblong 

depressed  body,  long 

antennae,    long    anal 

stylets,  and  the  female 

often  has  an  ovipositor 

nearly  as  long  as  her 

body.  The  male  chir- 
rups   to    attract    his 

mate,  the  apparatus 
being  a  specialization  of  the  membrane 
and  nervures  at  the  base  of  the  wings, 
so  that  the  rubbing  of  the  wings  upon 
one  another  produces  sound. 

The  Genus  Gryllotalpa  contains  the 
Mole  Cricket,  G.  borealis,  Burmeister, 
which  is  about  one  inch  and  a  quarter 


White  Climbing-Cricket, 
CE.  nivcens,  Serville. 


446  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

long,  and  at  once  recognized  by  its  stout  fore  legs,  which 
are  admirably  adapted  for  digging.  It  burrows  in  the 
moist  ground,  raising  ridges  in  its  search  for  insects,  on 
which  it  preys. 

The  Genus  Gryllus  contains  the  Field  Crickets,  which 
are  dark  colored  or  black ;  and  (Ecanthiis,  the  Climbing 
Crickets,  as  in  Fig  343, -which  are  light  colored. 

LocusTARijE,  Latr.,  OR  LOCUST  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily embraces  grasshopper-like  orthoptera  which  have  very 
long,  slender  antennae,  four-jointed  tarsi,  and  the  females 
have  a  long  ovipositor.  Many  of  them  produce  a  stridu- 
lating  sound  by  rubbing  their  wing-covers  together. 

The  Genus  Ceuthophilus  contains  those  which  are  wing- 
less, and  live  in  concealment  under  stones,  a  dozen  species 
of  which  are  enumerated  by  Scudder. 

The  Genus  Cyrtophyllus  has  the  wing-covers  much  wi- 
dened in  the  middle,  and  concave. 

The  Katydid,  C.  concavus,  Scudd.,  is  one  inch  and  a 
Fig>  345<  half  long  from  the  head  to 

the  end  of  the  wing-covers, 
which  enclose  the  body 
somewhat  like  the  valves 
of  a  pod.  This  insect  is 
silent  during  the  day,  hid- 
ing among  the  leaves ;  but 
at  early  twilight,  in  autumn, 
its  notes  come  from  the 
trees  of  the  garden  and 
groves,  and  continue  till  the 
dawn  of  day ;  and  such  a 
resemblance  do  they  have 
to  the  words  "  Katy  did," 
that  this  has  become  its 

Katydid.  C.  concavus.  Scudd  I-T.I  •• 

name.    The  sounds  are  pro- 
duced by  a  pair  of  taborets,  one  in  the  overlapping  por- 


ORTHOPTERA:  LOCUSTARLE.  447 

tion  of  each  wing-cover,  and  formed  by  a  thin  transparent 
membrane,  stretched  in  a  strong  frame.  The  friction  of 
the  frames  of  the  taborets  against  each  other,  as  the  in- 
sect opens  and  shuts  its  wings,  produces  the  sounds. 

The  Genus  Phylloptera  has  the  wing-covers  shorter 
than  the  wings,  and  not  concave. 

The  Oblong  Leaf-winged  Grasshopper,  P.  oblongifolia, 
Burm.,  is  from  an  inch  and  three  quarters  to  three  inches 
long  from  the  head  to  the  tips  of  the  wings.  It  is  found 
in  the  perfect  state  in  autumn  upon  trees,  and  when  it 
flies  makes  a  whizzing  noise.  The  female  lays  her  eggs 
on  twigs  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

The  Genus  Phaneroptera  has  the  ovipositor  curved 
sharply  upward. 

P.  curuicanda,  Serville,  is  about  one  inch  and  three 
quarters  from  the  forehead  to  the  tips  of  the  wings,  the 
wing-covers  of  uniform  width,  and  shorter  than  the  wings. 

The  Genus  Conocephalus  has  the  head  ending  in  a 
conical  projection. 

The  Sword-bearer,  C.  msiger,  Harr.,  is  from  an  inch 
and  three  fourths  to  two  inches  long  from  the  point  of 
the  head  to  the  tips  of  the  wing-covers,  and  is  pale  green. 
The  piercer  of  the  female  is  over  an  inch  long. 

The  Genus  Xiphidium  is  of  small  size,  and  the  oviposi- 
tor is  nearly  straight. 

The  Slender  Meadow-Grasshopper,  X.  fasciatum,  Ser- 
ville, is  about  eight  tenths  of  an  inch  long  from  the  head 
to  the  tips  of  the  wing-covers. 

The  Genus  Orchelimum  has  the  ovipositor  sabre-like 
in  form. 

ACRYDII,  Latr.,  OR  MIGRATORY  LOCUST  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  contains  orthopterous  insects  which  have  a 
large  head,  short  and  stout  antennae,  very  strong  hind 
legs,  three-jointed  tarsi,  and  no  projecting  ovipositor. 
The  genera  and  species  are  very  numerous.  In  some 


448  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

cases  they  move  in  swarms  so  great  as  to  darken  the  sky, 
and  the  places  where  they  alight  at  once  become  desti- 
tute of  a  green  leaf  or  a  blade  of  grass.  Many  of  them 
produce  a  stridulating  noise  by  rubbing  their  thighs 
against  their  wing-covers. 

The  Genus  Chlocaltis  has  the  hind  legs  long  and  slen- 
der, and  wings  extremely  short.  The  species  are  gener- 
ally less  than  one  inch  long. 

The  Genus  Stenobothrus  contains  the  most  common 
so-called  Grasshoppers. 

The  Genus  Tragocephala  contains  the  Goat-headed  Lo- 
custs, which  have  the  antennae  shorter  than  the  thorax, 
and  slightly  thickened  towards  the  end  ;  face  oblique. 

The  Genus  Caloptenus  contains  the  Red-legged  Locust 
and  its  immediate  allies. 

The  Red-legged  Locust,  C.  femur-rubrum,  Burm.,  is 
about  an  inch  long,  grizzled  with  dingy  olive  and  brown, 
and  the  hindmost  shanks  and  feet  blood-red,  with  black 
spines.  The  Yellow-striped  Locust,  C.  bivittatus,  Uhler, 
is  about  an  inch  long,  dull  green  or  orange,  with  a  yellow- 
ish line  on  each  side  from  the  forehead  to  the  tips  of  the 
wing-covers ;  the  hindmost  shanks  and  feet  blood-red ;  the 
spines  tipped  with  black. 

The  Genus  Acrydium  embraces  the  largest  members 
of  the  family,  including  the  celebrated  Migratory  Locusts 
of  the  East.  Some  tropical  species  are  four  inches  long. 

The  Genus  (Edipoda  contains  the  most  common  large 
species  of  the  United  States. 

The  Carolina  Locust,  (E.  Carolina,  Burm.,  is  about  one 
inch  and  a  half  long,  pale  yellowish-brown,  the  under 
wings  black  with  a  broad  yellow  hind  margin. 

The  Coral-winged  Locust,  CE.  phcenicoptera,  Germ.,  is 
about  one  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  is  light  brown  spotted 
with  dark  brown  on  the  wing-covers,  and  the  wings  are 
coral-red  with  an  external  dusky  border. 


NEUROPTERA. 


449 


The  Yellow-winged  Locust,  CE.  sulphured,  Burm. 

Fig.  34d 


is 


about  one  inch  long,  and  is  dusky  brown, 
the  wings  deep  yellow  next  the  body, 
dusky  at  the  tip,  the  yellow  portion  bound- 
ed beyond  the  middle  by  a  broad  dusky 
brown  band. 

The  Clouded  Locust,  (E.  nebulosa, 
Erichs.,  is  about  one  inch  long,  dusky 
brown,  with  pale  wing-covers  clouded  and 
spotted  with  brown,  and  the  wings  trans- 
parent. • 

The  Genus  Tettix  —  Grouse  Locusts  — 
has  the  thorax  greatly  prolonged  over  the 
entire  abdomen,  and  the  wing-covers  ex- 
ceedingly minute.  The  species  are  small, 
generally  less  than  half  an  inch  long,  and 
extremely  agile. 

THYSANOURA,  OR  SPRING-TAIL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  insects  which  are  wingless,  and  which  remind 
us  of  the  Myriapods. 

The  Genus  Podura  has  the  body  rather  broad,  hairy, 
abdomen  with  setae  converted  into  a  forked  tail  bent  be- 
neath the  body,  and  used  to  aid  in  leaping.  They  are 
found  in  gardens,  hot-beds,  and  on  the  surface  of  quiet 
pools. 

The  Genus  Lcpisma  is  long,  with  silvery  scales,  and 
the  abdomen  has  three  long  bristles.  It  is  found'  among 
old  books  and  woollens,  and  under  bark. 


Clouded  Locust,  (E. 
nebulosa,  Erichs. 


SUB-SECTION   VII. 

THE   SUB-ORDER   OF   NEUROPTERA,   OR   NET-WINGED   INSECTS. 

THE  Sub-Order  of  Neuroptera  embraces  insects  which 
have  four  membranous  net-veined  wings,  the  hinder  ones 
largest,  the  mouth  furnished  with  jaws,  and  the  abdomen 

c  c 


45O  ARTICULATES  I    INSECTS. 

destitute  of  sting  and  piercer.  In  some  the  transforma- 
tion is  complete,  in  others  only  partial.  The  families  are 
arranged  according  to  Hagens's  Synopsis. 

TERMITID.E,  Lair.,  OR  TERMITE  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  neuroptera  which  have  the  body  depressed, 
wings  when  present  longer  than  the  body  and  laid  hori- 
zontally on  the  back,  head  rounded,  thorax  nearly  square 
or  semicircular,  abdomen  with  two  small  conical  points  at 
the  extremity,  and  the  legs  short.  Termites  inhabit  warm 
countries  mainly,  and  are  known  by  the  name  of  White 
Ants.  They  live  in  communities,  whose  numbers  are  great. 
They  are  among  the  most  destructive  of  all  insects,  par- 
ticularly in  the  larva  state,  devouring  all  kinds  of  wooden 
furniture,  boards,  timber,  and  all  the  wood-work  of  houses, 
excavating  galleries  in  all  directions  in  these  materials, 
leaving  only  a  thin  surface-crust  or  shell  untouched,  which 
on  the  slightest  shock  crumbles  to  pieces.  A  beautiful 
edifice  in  the  Isle  of  France  was  thus  entirely  destroyed 
in  a  few  months  after  its  completion.  Some  species  of 
this  family  raise  their  nests  or  domiciles  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  in  the  form  of  pyramids  or  turrets,  some- 
times surmounted  with  a  solid  roof,  and  are  so  high  — 
ten  or  twelve  feet  sometimes  —  and  numerous,  that  they 
resemble  a  little  village.  Some  species  make  their  nests 
in  the  form  of  a  globular  mass  upon  trees.  Having  be- 
come perfect  insects,  Termites  leave  their  retreats  and  fly 
off  at  night  in  innumerable  numbers. 

PSOCID^E,  Latr.  —  This  Family  includes  minute  neu- 
roptera which  resemble  Aphides.  They  frequent  the 
trunks  of  trees,  old  books  and  papers,  and  neglected  col- 
lections of  plants  or  insects. 

The  Genus  Atropos  contains  A.  divinatorius  of  authors, 
the  little  wingless  louse-like  insect  always  seen  running 
over  the  leaves  of  dusty  books  and  papers. 

PERLARLE,  Latr.,  OR  PERLA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 


NEUROPTERA  I    EPHEMERIDJE. 


451 


Stone-Fly,  Pt.  regalis,  Newman. 
Reduced  one  half. 


comprises  neuroptera  which  are  oblong,  depressed,  with 
very  long  and  many-jointed  Fig.  347. 

antennae,  and  the  abdomen 
furnished  with  two  long  ar- 
ticulated appendages.  In 
the  larva  and  pupa  state 
they  are  found  in  streams 
under  stones,  and  are  ac- 
tive. 

The  Genus  Pteronarcys 
retains  its  branchiae  of  the 
larval  state.  Perla  shows 
disparity  between  the  sexes,  the  females  being  the  smaller. 

EPHEMERID.E,  Latr.,  OR  MAY -FLY  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  very  short-lived  neuroptera  which  have 
the  body  long,  slender,  soft,  the  wings  of  very  unequal 
size,  antennae  minute,  mouth-parts  obsolete,  and  the  ab- 
domen with  long  articulated  appendages.  Though  these 
insects  live  only  for  a  few  hours  or  a  day  in  the  perfect 
state,  their  existence  in  the  larva  and  semi-pupa  state 
extends  through  two  or  three  years,  and  all  this  time 
they  live  in  water.  The  larvae  have  long  antennae,  man- 
dibles for  chewing,  ciliated  filaments  along  the  sides  of 
the  body  for  breathing,  and  three  Fig.  34s. 

caudal  appendages.  When  about  to 
go  through  their  final  changes,  the 
pupae  crawl  to  the  surface,  cast  off 
the  pupa-skin,  and  appear  at  first 
sight  to  be  fully  developed,  with  the 
wings  expanded  to  the  full  size  ;  this 
is  the  sub-imago  state  ;  they  then 
fly  with  difficulty  to  the  shore,  affix 
themselves  to  plants  and  trees,  and  May-Fly,  Ephemera. 
cast  off  a  very  delicate  pellicle.  After  this  the  wings  are 
brighter,  and  the  tails  greatly  increase  in  length.  May- 


452  ARTICULATES:  INSECTS. 

Flies  appear  in  such  immense  swarms  in  some  parts  of 
Europe,  that  the  people  collect  their  dead  bodies  into 
heaps,  as  dressing  for  the  land.  They  are  common  in 
this  country.  One  of  our  species  is  shown  in  Fig.  348. 

ODONATA,  Fabr.,  OR  DRAGON-FLY  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  comprises  neuroptera  which  are  known  as  Devil's 
Darning-needles,  and  are  distinguished  by  their  long 
body,  large,  lustrous,  gauze-like  wings,  large  head,  large 
lateral  compound  eyes,  and  three  ocelli.  They  are  among 
the  most  conspicuous  of  insects,  and  at  once  arrest  the 
attention  by  their  size,  light  and  graceful  figure,  varie- 
gated colors,  and  the  great  velocity  with  which  they  speed 
their  way  over  fields  and  meadows,  or  skim  the  surfaces 
of  the  pools  or  ponds  in  search  of  flies,  mosquitoes,  and 

Fig.  349- 


Dragon-Fly,  L.  trimaculata,  DeGeer. 

other  insects,  which  constitute  their  food.  In  the  larva 
and  pupa  states  they  live  in  the  water,  and  when  the  time 
comes  for  the  last  change,  they  crawl  up  the'  stems  of 
plants,  and,  having  withdrawn  from  the  pupa-skin,  which 
remains  clinging  to  the  plant,  and  dried  themselves  a  little, 
they  spread  their  wings  and  dart  swiftly  away.  Though 
they  bite  quite  fiercely  with  their  jaws,  they  are  without 
any  sort  of  sting,  and  are  perfectly  harmless  to  man. 
The  Genus  Agrion  embraces  small  slender  species,  of  a 


NEUROPTERA  :  HEMEROBINI. 


4S3 


Fig.  350. 


blue,  green,  bronze,  or  red  color.  ^Eschna  is  very  large, 
and  has  the  body  cylindrical.  The  Hero-Dragon-Fly,  ^E. 
lieros,  Fabr.,  is  over  three  inches  and  a  half  long,  and  ex- 
pands about  five  inches.  Libellula  has  the  body  rather 
flat,  as  seen  in  Fig.  348.  Diplax  contains  mainly  yellow- 
ish, yellowish-red,  or  reddish  species,  with  long  and  slen- 
der feet ;  some,  however,  are  black  or  dark  brown. 

SIALID.E,  Leach,  OR  CORYDALIS  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily  comprises  sluggish   neuroptera  Fig.  35i. 
of  moderate  or  very  great 
size,  with  large   heads, 
large  jaws,  and  square 
thoracic  rings.  They  fre- 
quent the  neighborhood 
of  water,  in  which  they 
pass  the  larva  state. 

The  Genus  Corydalis 
contains  the  Horned  Co- 
rydalis, C.  cornuta,  Linn, 
which  expands  five  or  six 
inches.  Sialis  and  Chau- 
liodes  are  genera  con- 
taining mainly  black,  ferruginous,  or  dark  brown  species. 

HEMEROBINI,  Latr.,  OR  LACE-WINGED  FAMILY. — This 
Family  contains  very  delicate-winged  neuroptera,  whose 
larvae  feed  upon  other  insects,  especially  plant-lice. 

The  Genus  Hemerobius  contains  small  brown  species. 
Polystcec/wtes  resembles  the  preceding,  but  is  very  much 
larger,  with  more  acute  wings.  Chrysopa  contains  species 
which  are  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  which  expand 
about  one  inch  and  a  quarter  ;  wings  gauze-like,  greenish, 
eyes  golden.  They  give  a  fetid  smell  when  disturbed. 
Mantispa  has  the  prothorax  much  elongated,  and  the  for- 
ward feet  adapted  to  seizing  prey. 

The  Genus  Myrmeleon  contains  the  Ant-Lions,  which  in 


Larva. 

Horned  Corydalis,  C.  cornnta  of  authors. 
Reduced  one  half. 


454 


ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 


the  larva  state  feed  upon  ants  and  other  insects,  securing 
them  by  making  pitfalls,  at  the  bottom  of  which  the  larva 
conceals  itself,  except  its  jaws,  and  awaits  its  prey. 


Fig.  352. 


Ant-Lion,  M.  obsoletus,  Say. 


Fig.  354- 


Fig.  353- 


Fig.  355- 


Pitfall  of  Ant- Lion  ;  tips  of  jaws  exposed.       Larva  of  Ant-Lion  ;  enlarged. 

PANORPAT.E,  Latr.  —  This  Family  comprises  small  neu- 
roptera  which  have  the  head  long  and  narrow,  wings  nar- 
row and  banded,  and  the  tail  armed  with  a  forceps-like 
apparatus.  They  are  found  in  woods,  and  feed  upon 
other  insects. 

PHRYGANID.E,  Latr.,  OR  CADDICE-FLY  FAMILY.  —  This 

Family  embraces  neuroptera 
which  have  the  wings  broad 
and  parallel-veined,  and  long 
antennae.  The  larvae  are  found 
abundantly  at  the  bottom  of 
ponds  and  streams  in  cases 
composed  of  bits  of  wood,  or 
grass,  or  of  shells,  or  grains 
of  sand,  and  lined  with  silk.  They  carry  the  case  about 
with  them,  crawling  along  the  bottom,  and  even  rising  to 


Caddice-Fly,  N.fasdata,  Say. 


ARACHNIDA.  455 

the  surface  of  the  water.  Many  of  them  load  one  side  of 
the  case  with  heavier  pieces,  so  as  to  keep  that  side  down- 
ward. 

The  Genus  Neuronia  contains  the  Half-banded  Cad- 
dice-Fly,  N.  fasciata,  Say,  which  is  about  an  inch  long, 
and  expands  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half,  with  the  gen- 
eral color  tawny. 

SUB-SECTION  VIII. 

THE  ORDER  OF  ARACHNIDA,   OR  SPIDERS. 

THIS  Order  embraces  insects  which  have  the  body 
divided  into  only  two  well-marked  regions,  the  head 
and  the  hind  body ;  the  head  and  thorax  being  closely 
united  into  one  piece.  They  are  wholly  destitute  of 
wings,  have  simple  eyes,  eight  legs,  and  are  subject  to 
no  changes  in  form  in  coming  to  maturity,  which  they 
reach  after  moulting  their  skins  six  times.  Their  legs 
are  attached  to  the  forward  region,  and  the  hind  body 
is  soft  or  little  protected,  and  with  some  exceptions  is 
very  large  in  comparison  with  the  head.  Most  of  them 
feed  on  insects  proper.  Some  are  parasitic  on  verte- 
brated  animals.  They  naturally  divide  into  two  groups, 
—  Tracheary  and  Pulmonary  Arachnida. 

The  Tracheary  Arachnida  perform  their  respiration  by 
means  of  tracheae,  which  divide  near  their  origin  into 
various  branches,  —  not,  as  in  insects  proper,  forming 
two  trunks  which  run  parallel  to  each  other  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  body,  receiving  air  through  numer- 
ous stigmata,  —  and  receive  air  through  only  two  stig- 
mata, and  these  situated  near  the  base  of  the  abdomen  ; 
the  number  of  their  simple  eyes  is  never  more  than  four. 
Such  are  the  Pseudo-Scorpions  and  their  allies. 

The  Pulmonary  Arachnida  perform  their  respiration 
by  means  of  pulmonary  sacs,  situated  in  the  under  part 
of  the  abdomen,  into  which  the  air  is  admitted  by  means 


456  ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

f    j; 

of  transverse  fissure's  or  stigmata  varying  in  number  from 
two  to  eight.  Such  are  the  true  Spiders  and  Scorpions. 
ARANEID.E,  Latr.,  OR  TRUE  SPIDER  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  contains  pulmonary  arachnida  which  have  palpi 
resembling  feet,  with  no  forceps  at  the  end,  or  at  most 
terminated  in  the  females  by  a  little  hook.  The  first 
joint  in  the  males  gives  origin  to  more  or  less  compli- 
cated sexual  appendages.  Their  frontal  chelicerae,  or 
forceps-antennae,  or  mandibles,  —  for  all  these  names 
are  applied  to  the  same  things,  —  are  terminated  by  a 
movable  hook,  flexed  inferiorly,  underneath  which,  and 
near  its  pointed  extremity,  is  a  little  opening  for  the 
passage  of  a  venomous  fluid  contained  in  a  gland  of  the 
preceding  joint.  Their  jaws  are  never  more  than  two, 
and  the  abdomen  is  always  furnished  with  from  four  to 
six  closely  approximated  cylindrical  or  conical  jointed 
Fjg.  356.  protuberances  with  fleshy  extrem- 

ities, which  are  perforated  with 
numberless  small  holes  for  the 
passage  of  silky  filaments,  that 
have  their  origin  in  internal  res- 
ervoirs. The  newly  spun  filaments 
are  adhesive,  and  a  certain  amount 
of  drying  is  required  to  fit  them 
for  their  destined  purposes.  When 
the  temperature  is  favorable,  a 
single  instant  is  sufficient  to  dry 
and  harden  them.  All  the  spiders 

'Spider,  Lycosa  lenta,  Hentz.  fa^  fa  not   TOam    aboilt    ill     Search 

of  prey  weave  webs  of  more  or  less  compact  tissue,  and 
varying  in  form  according  to  the  species,  where  insects 
upon  which  they  feed  may  become  entangled.  As  soon 
as  an  insect  is  caught  in  the  web,  the  spider,  hitherto  at 
the  centre  of  his  web,  or  at  the  bottom,  or  in  a  covert  at 
one  corner,  rushes  towards  his  victim,  and  endeavors  to 


ARACHNIDA  I    PEDIP 

pierce  him,  distilling  into  the  wounc 
poison.  Should  the  victim  be  too  large  or  too  powerful 
for  the  spider,  the  latter  retires  till  the  former  becomes 
more  entangled  and  exhausted.  But  as  soon  as  practica- 
ble, the  spider  binds  his  victim  firmly  with  silken  bands, 
and  proceeds  to  feast  upon  it.  The  females  enclose  their 
eggs  in  sacs  made  of  the  same  kind  of  silk  as  that  of  which 
they  make  their  webs.  Some  species  tear  open  the  egg- 
sac  when  the  young  are  ready  to  hatch ;  others  carry 
their  egg-sacs  under  their  abdomen,  or  stay  near  to  watch 
them.  The  bite  of  an  ordinary  spider  will  kill  a  fly  in  a 
few  minutes  ;  the  bite  of  some  of  the  large  kinds  in  South 
America  kills  humming-birds ;  and  that  of  the  larger  spe- 
cies is  poisonous  to  man,  and  in  some  cases  fatal.  Our 
numerous  species  are  well  described  by  Hentz. 

PEDIPALPI,  Latr.,  OR  SCORPION  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  pulmonary  arach- 
nida  which  have  a  long  body, 
terminated  by  a  long  tail  end- 
ing in  an  arcuated  point  or 
sting,  which  discharges  a  ven- 
omous fluid  contained  in  an 
internal  reservoir  ;  they  have 
the  palpi  very  large,  with  'for- 
ceps at  the  extremity.  Scor- 
pions inhabit  warm  countries 
of  both  hemispheres,  live  on 
the  ground  under  rubbish, 
among  ruins,  and  sometimes 
in  houses.  They  run  quite 
rapidly,  curving  the  tail  over 
the  back  ;  and  they  can  throw 
the  tail  in  any  direction,  and 
use  it  both  for  attack  and  de- 
fence. 

20 


Fig.  357- 


Scorpion,  Butkus  spinigerus,  Wood, 
Texas. 


ARTICULATES  :    INSECTS. 

PsEUDO-ScoRPiONES,  Latr.  —  This  Family  comprises 
small  tracheary,  scorpion -like  animals  represented  by 
Chelifer,  which  has  a  flattened  abdomen,  the  palpi  en- 
larged and  bearing  a  claw  at  the  extremity  much  like 
that  of  a  lobster.  One  minute  species  is  common  in 
books  and  neglected  drawers. 

PHALANGITA,  OR  LONG-LEGS  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
embraces  tracheary  arachnids  which  are  popularly  known 
as  Daddy-long-legs,  or  Harvest-men,  and  which  are  at 
once  distinguished  by  the  round  oval  body  and  long  slen- 
der legs,  which  are  very  easily  detached. 

ACARINA,  Nitsch.,  OR  MITE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises very  small,  and  in  many  cases  microscopic,  tra- 
cheary arachnida,  some  of  which  are  found  almost  every- 
where, and  which  have  the  forward  region  joined  in  a 
mass  with  the  abdomen,  and  not  divided  apparently  into 
rings.  The  majority  are  parasitic  on  other  animals.- 

The  Genus  Trombidium  includes  the  little,  square,  vel- 
vet-red mite  seen  in  spring  in  flower-beds.  Gamasus  is 
found  on  beetles.  Acarus  causes  the  loathsome  disease 
known  as  the  itch,  by  burrowing  in  the  skin  and  flesh 
of  the  unfortunate  victim.  Ixodes  lives  in  the  woods,  and 
attaches  itself  to  animals,  and  is  known  as  the  Tick. 


SUB-SECTION    IX. 

THE  ORDER  OF  MYRIAPODA,  MYRIAPODS,  OR  CENTIPEDES. 

THIS  Order  comprises  insects  which  have  a  very  long 
body,  made  up  of  numerous,  and  generally  equal,  seg- 
ments, each  of  which  generally  bears  two  pairs  of  feet, 
Fig-  358.  mostly   terminated    with    a 

single  hook.  Their  organs 
of  sight  consist  of  a  few 
ocelli.  The  larvae  when 

American  Myriapod,  or  Galley- Worm,  ,      ,     ,        ,  n      i 

hatched  generally  have  nine 


MYRIAPODA  :    LITHOBIID^E.  459 

rings,  but  the  number  increases  with  age  till  there  are 
in  some  cases  many  times  that  number.  They  may  be 
divided  into  Chilognatha  and  Chilopoda ;  the  former 
embracing  those  which  have  a  large  number  of  rings, 
each  of  which  bears  two  pairs  of  legs,  and  short  and 
few-jointed  antennae,  and  feed  mainly  on  decomposing 
vegetable  substances ;  the  latter,  those  which  have  the 
body  flattened,  with  a  smaller  number  of  rings,  each 
of  which  has  a  single  pair  of  legs,  of  which  the  last 
pair  is  largest  and  extended  behind,  the  antennae  long 
and  with  numerous  joints,  and  the  jaws  strong,  and 
which  are  carnivorous  in  their  habits. 

GLOMERID^E,  Leach.  —  This  Family  contains  chilo- 
gnaths  which  have  an  oval  form  and  few  segments,  and 
which  have  the  habit  of  rolling  themselves  into  a  ball. 

IULID.E,  Leach.  —  This  Family  contains  chilognaths 
which  are  long,  cylindrical,  and  hard,  with  numerous 
short  and  weak  feet,  and  which  crawl  rather  slowly,  and 
coil  the  body  when  at  rest.  The  Genus  luhis  contains 
the  species.  The  species  of  temperate  regions  are  sel- 
dom more  than  one  or  two  inches  long;  but  tropical 
species  are  six  or  seven  inches  in  length. 

POLYDESMID^E,  Leach.  —  This  Family  embraces  chilo- 
gnaths which  are  closely  related  to  lulidae  in         Fig.  359. 
structure  and  habits,  but  have  the  body  much 
flattened. 

LITHOBIID^E,  Newport.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces chilopods,  which  are  well  represented 
by  the  Genus  LitJwbius,  found  everywhere 
under  rubbish,  and  distinguished  by  the  or- 
bicular head,  long  forty-jointed  antennae,  and 
sixteen  rings.  They  feed  upon  insects  and 
worms,  and  run  rapidly.  They  are  called 
Earwigs  in  this  country,  but  the  writer  is  not 

11  i    »  American  Earwig, 

aware  that  they  ever  enter  people  s  ears. 


460  ARTICULATES:  CRUSTACEANS. 


Leach,  OR  CENTIPEDE  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  comprises  chilopods  represented  by  the 
Genus  Scolopcndra,  which  has  twenty  rings  besides  those 
that  form  the  head.  Our  species  are  only  two  or  three 
inches  long  ;  but  in  the  warm  and  tropical  regions  they 
are  much  larger,  even  a  foot  in  length  in  some  cases. 
The  bite  of  the  tropical  species  is  very  poisonous. 

GsopHiLiDyE,  LeacJi.  —  This  Family  comprises  chilo- 
pods which  are  greatly  elongated  and  slender,  and  with 
one  or  two  hundred  rings  in  some  cases. 

Fossil  Insects  are  found  in  the  rocks  as  low  as  the 
Carboniferous  inclusive. 


SECTION    II. 

THE  CLASS  OF  CRUSTACEA,  OR  CRUSTACEANS. 

THE  Class  of  Crustacea  includes  all  articulated  animals 
which  have  the  head  and  thorax  essentially  in  one  piece, 
called  cephalo-thorax,  and  which  respire  by  means  of 
gills,  being  thus  aquatic  in  their  mode  of  respiration,  and 
which  have  a  straight  alimentary  canal,  and  shed,  at  more 
or  less  regular  intervals,  their  usually  solid  calcareous 
covering  or  external  skeleton.  The  body  of  a  Crustacean 
consists  normally  of  twenty-one  segments,  fourteen  be- 
longing to  the  cephalo-thorax,  and  seven  to  the  abdomen  ; 
but  in  the  adult  these  are  not  generally  apparent.  These 
animals  are  carnivorous,  mainly  aquatic,  and  mostly  ma- 
rine ;  but  some  live  on  the  land,  others  in  fresh  water,  and 
all  tan  remain  out  of  water  for  a  considerable  time  with- 
out perishing.  The  locomotive  organs  of  Crustaceans  are 
very  numerous  ;  for  in  many  cases  every  segment  has  its 
pair  of  appendages ;  but  notwithstanding  all  these  append- 
ages have  the  same  fundamental  structure,  they  are  spe- 
cialized so  as  to  perform  very  various  functions,  as  those 


DECAPODS.  461 

of  antennae,  eyes,  jaws,  claws,  feet,  paddles,  and  tail ;  that 
is,  these  extremely  different  organs  are  only  modified 
locomotive  appendages.  The  voluntary  muscles  of  these 
animals  are  composed  of  transversely  striated  and  per- 
fectly colorless  fibres,  and  are  always  inserted  on  the  in- 
terior of  the  skeleton,  either  directly  or  by  means  of  its 
processes.  Isolated  muscles  have  a  ribbon-like  form.  The 
nervous  system,  in  its  central  mass,  consists  of  an  abdom- 
inal cord  connecting  with  the  cerebral  ganglia  by  a  ring 
enclosing  the  oesophagus.  In  the  long-bodied  crustaceans, 
the  abdominal  cord  is  composed  of  numerous  ganglia, 
arranged  in  successive  pairs,  from  before  backwards,  and 
connected  by  longitudinal  commissures.  When  the  body 
is  shortened  by  the  fusion  of  segments,  the  number  of 
ganglia  diminishes  by  the  coalescence  or  disappearance 
of  several.  The  sense  of  touch  is  highly  developed  ;  the 
sense  of  sight  ,is  present  in  nearly  or  quite  all ;  but  the 
organs  of  hearing  have  been  detected  only  in  the  highest. 
The  mouth  is  generally  situated  underneath  and  some- 
what back  from  the  anterior  border  of  the  head.  The 
heart  is  situated  in  the  axis  of  the  body,  directly  under 
the  shell,  at  the  fore  part  of  the  back,  and  is  often  at- 
tached to  the  internal  surface  of  the  skeleton  by  muscular 
fibres.  The  blood  is  generally  colorless.  Crustaceans 
have  a  wonderful  power  of  repairing  injuries  to  them- 
selves ;  if  a  leg  or  other  appendage  be  broken  off,  an- 
other like  it  soon  grows  in  its  place. 

Crustaceans  may  be  divided,  according  to  Dana,  into 
three  orders,  —  Decapods,  Tetradecapods,  and  Entomos- 
tracans. 

SUB-SECTION   I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  DECAPODS,   OR  TEN-FOOTED  CRUSTACEANS. 

THE  Order  of  Decapods  comprises  crustaceans  which 
normally  have  nine  cephalic  segments,  and  but  five  foot 


462 


ARTICULATES  I  CRUSTACEANS. 


segments,  each  of  the  latter  bearing  a  pair  of  so-called 
feet.  It  is  the  highest  of  the  Crustaceans,  and  embraces 
Brachyurans,  including  Anomurans ;  Macrurans ;  and 
Gastrurans. 


Fig.  360. 


Fig.  361. 


Brachyuran  :  Fiddler  Crab, 
Gelasimus  vocans,  Milne-Edw. 


Macruran  :  Bait  Shrimp, 
Crangon  septemspinosus,  Say. 


The  Brachyurans  include  crustaceans  which  have  the 
hind  body  —  popularly  called  the  tail  —  shorter  than  the 
cephalo-thorax,  and,  in  a  state  of  rest,  doubled  under  the 

Fig.  362. 


American  Edible  Crab,  Lupa  dicantha,  Milne-Edw.     Reduced  one  half. 

latter,  where  it  fits  into  a  groove.  In  the  males  it  is  tri- 
angular, and  furnished  at  the  base  with  two  or  four  horn- 
like appendages ;  in  the  females  it  is  wider,  and  has  be- 


DECAPODS  :    MACRURANS.  463 

neath  it  four  pairs  of  double  hairy  appendages  to  support 
the  eggs.  Such  are  the  Crabs,  of  which  there  is  a  large 
number  of  genera  and  species,  varying  from  a  very  small 
size  to  those  which,  with  all  their  appendages,  cover  an 
area  of  two  or  three  feet  square;  their  forms  also  are 
almost  endlessly  varied.  They  walk  with  equal  facility 
forward,  backward,  sidewise,  and  oblique.  The  Anomu- 
rans  are  represented  by  the  Hermit  Crabs,  Pagurus, 
which  inhabit  the  spiral  shells  of  dead  Gasteropods. 

The  Macrurans  comprise  long-tailed  decapods,  those 
which  have  the  hind  body  as  long  as  the  cephalo-thorax, 
and  generally  curved  downwards  and  forwards,  as  Lob- 

Fi3.  363- 


American  Lobster,  Homarus  americanus,  DeKay. 

sters,  Cray-Fishes  or  Fresh-water  Lobsters,  Shrimps,  and 
Prawns.  Homarus  contains  the  American  Lobster,  H. 
americanus,  DeKay,  which  is  from  one  to  two  feet  long. 

The  Gastrurans  —  Stomapods,  Latr.  —  contain  those 
decapods  which  have  the  viscera  extending  into  the  ab- 
domen, and  the  feet  mainly  approximating  the  mouth. 
Their  general  form  bears  considerable  resemblance  to 
that  of  Shrimps.  They  are  all  marine.  Squilla,  con- 
taining the  Sea  Mantes,  is  a  characteristic  genus. 


464 


ARTICULATES  I  CRUSTACEANS. 


SUB-SECTION    II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  TETRADECAPODS,   OR   FOURTEEN-FOOTED   CRUS- 
TACEANS. 

THE  Order  of  Tetradecapods  comprises  the  Crustacea 
which  normally  have  seven  cephalic  segments  and  pairs 
of  appendages,  and  seven  foot-rings  or  pairs  of  feet.  It 
contains  three  groups,  —  Isopods,  including  Anisopods  ; 
Amphipods,  including  Laemodipods ;  and  Trilobites.  The 
living  species  are  mainly  very  small. 

The  Isopods  have  the  four  posterior  pairs  of  thoracic 
legs  in  one  series,  and  the  three  anterior  in  another ;  the 
branchiae  abdominal ;  and  the  abdominal  members  in 
two  sets,  the  five  anterior  pairs  branchial,  and  the  sixth 
more  or  less  styliform.  Many  of  the  marine  species  are 
parasitic  on  other  animals.  The  land  genera  inhabit 
dark,  damp  situations.  Of  the  latter,  Oniscus,  containing 
the  Sow-Bug,  and  Armadillo,  the  Pill-Bug,  are  examples. 
Fig.  364.  The  Amphipods  have  the  three  poste- 

rior pairs  of  thoracic  legs  in  one  series,  the 
four  anterior  pairs  in  two  other  series  of 
two  pairs  each,  and  the  branchiae  thoracic ; 
the  abdominal  members  in  two  sets,  the 
•three  anterior  pairs  subnatatory,  the  three 
posterior  styliform.  They  are  known  as 
Sand-  and  Beach-Fleas. 
365-  Trilobites  may  perhaps 

be  placed  here,  according 
to  the  classification  pre- 
sented by  Dana  in  his  learn- 
ed papers  on  Cephaliza- 
tion.  These  very  curious 
animals  are  all  fossil,  and 
abound  in  the  Silurian  and 
Devonian  rocks.  They  also 
occur  in  the  Carboniferous,  where  they  at  last  disappear. 


Sand- Flea, 

Orchestia  longicor- 

nis,  Gould. 


• 


ENTOMOSTRACANS. 


SUB-SECTION    III. 


465 


THE  ORDER  OF  ENTOMOSTRACA,  OR  ENTOMOSTRACANS. 

THE  Order  of  Entomostraca  comprises  Crustacea  which 
are  defective  both  in  segments  and  feet  as  compared  with 
the  preceding  orders,  and  rank  lower.  They  have  nor- 
mally six  or  five  cephalic  rings,  the  eight  or  nine  posterior 
ones  belonging  to  the  foot  series,  but  three  or  more  hind 
pairs  of  these  are  usually  obsolete.  The  abdomen  is  also 
without  appendages.  This  group  embraces  Carcinoids ; 
Ostracoids,  including  Cirripeds ;  Limuloids ;  and  Rotifers. 

The  Carcinoids  are  very  small  or  minute,  and  are  repre- 
sented by  Cyclops,  Caligus,  and  Argulus ;  the  last  two  gen- 
era containing  little  crustaceans  often  found  adhering  to 
the  surfaces  respectively  of  marine  and  fresh-water  fishes. 

The  Ostracoids  have  a  bivalve  carapax,  and  a  short 
incurved  abdomen  without  terminal  appendages.  Ex- 


Fig.  368. 


Fig.  366. 


Barnacles,  Anatifa. 


Horse-shoe  Crab, 
L  imitlus  polypheimts. 


cepting  the  Cirripeds  or  Barnacles,  which  are  from  half 
an  inch  to  several  inches   long,  and   marine,  they  are 

20*  DD 


466  ARTICULATES  I    WORMS. 

mainly  very  small  or  minute  inhabitants  of  fresh  water. 
Daphnia,  Cypris,  and  Limnadia  are  characteristic  genera. 

The  Limuloids  have  the  abdomen  reduced  to  a  spine. 
The  Genus  Limulus  is  represented  by  the  Horse-shoe 
Crab,  Fig.  368,  which  attains  the  length  of  nearly  two  feet 
in  some  cases..  This  curious  crustacean  uses  the  same 
organs  both  for  walking  and  eating,  —  the  haunches  of 
the  first  six  pairs  of  legs  performing  the  functions  of  jaws. 

The  Rotifers  are  minute  and  mainly  microscopic  crus- 
taceans, varying  from  one  sixteenth  of  a  line  to  a  line  in 
length,  and  the  organs  of  locomotion  are  merely  cilia  ar- 
ranged around  the  head.  They  are  radiate  in  general 
appearance,  but  crustacean  in  structure. 


SECTION    III. 

THE    CLASS    OF   WORMS. 

THE  Class  of  Worms  includes  the  lowest  articulates, 
those  that  present  the  typical  structure  of  the  branch  in 
the  most  simple  and  uniform  manner.  The  body  is  long, 
and  composed  of  numerous  similar  rings  or  segments, 
and  the  first,  though  scarcely  differing  from  the  others  in 
appearance,  is  the  head.  The  nervous  system  is  distrib- 
uted equally  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  body, 
and  hence  these  animals  are  not  destroyed  when  cut 
asunder,  as  is  the  case  in  the  higher  animals,  where  there 
is  a  great  centre  of  the  nervous  system  and  nervous  force. 
When  severed,  worms  not  only  do  not  immediately  die, 
but  in  many  cases  the  head  part  at  length  produces  a 
tail,  and  the  tail  part  a  head,  so  that  one  individual  in 
this  way  becomes  two.  Division  and  self-repair,  as  above, 
are  in  some  a  normal  mode  of  multiplication.  Worms 
have  been  divided  into  three  orders;  —  Annelides;  Ne- 
matoids,  including  Gordiacei  and  Acanthocephala ;  and 
Trematods,  including  Leeches,  Planariae,  and  Cestoids. 


ANNELIDES:    SERPULAD^E.  467 

SUB-SECTION    I. 
THE  ORDER  OF  ANNELIDES. 

THIS  Order  comprises  worms  which  have  red  blood 
that  circulates  in  a  double  system  of  complicated  vessels. 

SERPULAD.E,  OR  SERPULA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces marine  worms  whose  organs  of  respiration  are 
in  tufts  attached  to  the  head  and  anterior  part  of  the 
body.  In  most  cases  they  live  in  tubes,  and  hence  are 
often  called  Tubicolae.  In  some  the  tubes  are  calcareous, 
in  others  horny,  the  result  of  transudation  ;  others  still 
are  formed  of  grains  of  sand,  or  other  particles  bound  to- 
gether by  a  membrane  also  transuded. 

The  Genus  Serpula  has  the  anterior 
portion  spread  out  in  the  form  of  a  disk 
armed  on  each  side  with  bundles  of  coarse 
hairs,  and  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  is 
a  tuft  of  branchiae  shaped  like  a  fan, 
and  generally  tinged  with  bright  colors. 
At  the  base  of  each  tuft  is  a  fleshy  fila- 
ment, one  of  which  is  always  elongated, 
and  expanded  at  its  extremity  into  a  disk 
which  serves  as  an  operculum,  and  seals 
up  the  opening  to  the  tube  when  the 
animal  is  withdrawn  into  it.  The  cal-  Marine 
careous  tubes  of  the  serpulae  cover  submarine  bodies. 

ARENICOLAD^E,  OR  SAND-WORM  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily comprises  worms  which  have  the  organs  of  respiration 
in  the  form  of  trees,  tufts,  laminae,  or  tubercles,  placed  on 
the  middle  of  the  body.  They  are  marine,  and  known  as 
Dorsibranchiatae,  and  live  free  in  sand,  mud,  or  water. 

LUMBRICID.E,  OR  EARTH-WORM  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily embraces  worms  which  have  no  visible  external  organs 
of  respiration,  but  appear  to  respire  by  the  entire  surface. 

The  Genus  Ltimbricus  contains  the  common  Earth- 


468  ARTICULATES:  WORMS. 

Fig.  370. 


Earth- Worm,  L.  terrestris,  Linn. 

Worm,  or  Angle-Worm,  L.  terrestris,  Linn.,  which,  when 
fully  grown,  is  six  inches  long,  reddish,  and  is  composed  of 
more  than  a  hundred  rings.  It  inhabits  moist,  rich  soils. 

SUB-SECTION  II. 

THE   ORDER   OF   NEMATOIDS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  worms  known  as  Helminthes, 
Entozoa,  or  Intestinal  Worms.  They  live  and  multiply 
in  the  interior  of  other  animals.  There  is  scarcely  an 
animal  that  is  not  inhabited  by  one  or  more  species  be- 
longing either  to  this  order  or  the  next. 

GORDIACEID^E,  OR  GoRDius  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  worms  which  in  their  larva  state  inhabit  other 
animals,  but  not  in  the  adult.  They  are  long,  thread-like 
or  hair-like  in  appearance,  and  live  in  fresh  water  and 
mud.  They  are  often  called  hair-worms,  and  persons 
ignorant  of  their  history  suppose  them  to  be  horse-hairs 
transformed  into  worms ! 

SUB-SECTION  III. 

THE  ORDER  OF  TREMATODS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  worms  which  are  provided  with 
organs  either  at  one  or  both  extremities,  by  which  they  are 
able  to  fix  themselves  firmly  to  the  walls  of  internal  cavi- 
ties, to  the  flesh,  or  to  the  external  surfaces  of  animals. 

HiRUDiNiDjE,  OR  LEECH  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises worms  which  are  oblong,  and  generally  depressed. 
The  mouth  is  encircled  with  a  lip,  and  the  hind  extremity 


TREMATODS  I    CESTOIDS.  469 

with  a  flattened  disk,  both  of  which  are  well  adapted  to 
adhere  to  other  bodies,  and  are  the  principal  organs  of 
locomotion.  Leeches  abound  in  stagnant  waters. 

CESTOIDS,  OR  TAPE-WORM  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
embraces  tape-like  worms,  narrow  towards  the  head 
and  widening  behind,  which  in  their  mature  state  live 
only  in  the  intestines  of  vertebrated  animals.  They 
occur  in  all  the  classes  of  vertebrates ;  and  generally  dif- 
ferent species  are  inhabited  by  different  species  of  ces- 
toids ;  and  sometimes  two  or  three  species  of  cestoids 
inhabit  the  same  species  of  vertebrate  at  the  same 
time,  and  in  some  cases  the  same  intestine.  Some  are 
scarcely  visible  ;  others,  the  largest,  attain  in  some  cases 
the  length  of  one  hundred  feet !  The  width  is  nearly 
an  inch  in  some  of  the  widest.  The  eggs  of  a  cestoid 
never  hatch  in  the  same  intestine  in  which  the  cestoid 
lives,  but  only  after  they  have  been  taken  into  the  stom- 
ach of  another  and  suitable  animal.  Thence  the  embryos 
pierce  their  way  into  the  blood-vessels,  and  are  carried 
by  the  circulation  of  the  blood  into  various  parts  of  the 
body,  where  they  develop  into  larvae  called  hydatids. 
The  so-called  "measly  pork"  is  pork  containing  these 
hydatids,  —  that  is,  measly  hogs  are  such  as  have  their 
muscles  more  or  less  filled  with  the  larvae  of  cestoids  or 
tape-worms  ;  and  if  the  flesh  of  such  hogs  be  eaten  before 
cooking,  which  kills  the  hydatids,  the  man  or  animal 
eating  it  takes  these  hydatids  into  his  intestines,  where 
they  are  sure  to  develop  into  tape-worms.  And  so  in 
regard  to  all  animals  which  have  tape-worms ;  they  get 
them  by  eating  other  animals  in  whose  tissues  there  ex- 
ist hydatids ;  and  the  way  those  animals  afflicted  with 
the  hydatids  get  the  latter  is,  as  stated  above,  by  swal- 
lowing with  their  food  or  drink  some  of  the  infinitesimal 
small  eggs  of  the  tape-worm.  Two  hundred  species  of 
cestoids  have  already  been  described,  quite  a  number  of 
which  inhabit  man. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  BRANCH  OF  MOLLUSCA,  OR  MOLLUSKS. 

THE  Branch  of  Mollusca  embraces  animals  which  have 
the  body  soft  and  enveloped  in  a  muscular  skin,  and  in 
most  cases  protected  by  a  shell.  They  have  a  distinct 
nervous  system,  consisting  of  ganglia,  some  of  which  sur- 
round the  oesophagus,  and  others,  connected  by  nervous 
filaments,  are  scattered  throughout  the  body ;  and  they 


Gasteropod. 

are  furnished  with  organs  more  or  less  developed  appro- 
priate to  the  five  senses  of  higher  animals,  and  with 
organs  by  which  food  is  secured  and  digested,  a  heart 


CEPHALOPODS.  471 

Fig-  373-  Fig.  374. 


Acephals. 


with  arteries  and  veins,  and  organs  of  respiration  and 
reproduction.*  They  are  divided  into  three  classes, — 
Cephalopoda  or  Cephalopods,  Gasteropoda  or  Gastero- 
pods,  and  Acephala  or  Acephals. 

SECTION   I. 

THE  CLASS  OF  CEPHALOPODA,  OR  CEPHALOPODS. 

THE  Class  of  Cephalopoda  comprises  mollusks  whose 
head  is  distinctly  marked,  and  furnished  with  a  large  and 
prominent  eye  on  either  side,  and  crowned  with  longer 
or  shorter  fleshy  flexible  appendages,  or  arms  covered 
with  cups,  suckers,  or  hooks.  These  arms  serve  both 
as  organs  of  locomotion  and  prehension,  and  the  cups  or 
suckers  enable  these  animals  to  adhere  with  the  greatest 
tenacity  to  whatever  body  they  embrace.  They  swim 
with  the  head  backwards,  and  crawl  with  the  head  be- 
neath and  the  body  above.  Surrounded  by  the  arms  or 
fleshy  appendages  mentioned  above  is  the  mouth,  armed 
with  two  stout  horny  jaws  resembling  the  beak  of  a  par- 
rot ;  the  tongue  bristles  with  horny  points ;  the  oesopha- 
gus swells  into  a  crop,  and  then  communicates  with  a 
gizzard  as  fleshy  as  that  of  a  bird,  to  which  succeeds  a 
third  membranous  and  spiral  stomach,  which  receives  the 

*  Professor  J.  D.  Dana  defines  Mollusca  as  follows  :  "The  structure  essen- 
tially a  soft,  fleshy  bag,  containing  the  stomach  and  viscera,  without  a  radi- 
ate structure,  and  without  articulations." 


MOLLUSKS  :    CEPHALOPODS. 

bile  from  the  two  ducts  of  a  very  large  liver.  A  fleshy 
funnel  before  the  neck  affords  a  passage  to  the  water 
which  aerates  the  gills,  and  also  an  exit  for  the  excretions. 
The  eye  consists  of  several  membranes,  and  is  covered  by 
the  skin,  which  becomes  diaphanous  in  that  particular 
spot.  The  ear  is  a  slight  cavity  on  each  side  near  the 
brain,  where  a  membranous  sac  containing  a  little  stone 
is  suspended.  Cephalopods  are  marine,  and  are  remark- 
able for  a  peculiar  and  intensely  black  fluid  which  they 
secrete,  and  which,  when  they  apprehend  danger,  they 
eject  into  the  water,  thus  discoloring  it,  and  enabling  the 
animals  to  conceal  themselves.  They  are  quick  in  their 
movements,  predaceous,  and  very  voracious. 

SUB-SECTION    I. 

THE   ORDER   OF   DIBRANCHIATA,   OR  TWO-GILLED   CEPHALOPODS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  cephalopods  which  have  two 
branchiae,  an  ink-gland  always  present,  and,  with  few 
exceptions,  a  rudimentary  internal  shell.  Representa- 
tives are  found  in  all  latitudes,  and  in  open  ocean  as  well 
as  near  the  shores.  The  skin  of  the  naked  cephalopods 
contains  variously  colored  pigment-cells  ;  and  these  ani- 
mals have  the  power  of  effecting  such  changes  in  these 
cells,  that  the  hues  of  the  skin  differ  from  one  moment  to 
another. 

The  Dibranchiata  embrace  Argonautidae,  Octopodidae, 
Teuthidae,  Belemnitidae,  Sepiadae,  and  Spirulidae.  The 
first  two  families  have  eight  arms,  and  fixed  eyes  ;  the 
remaining  ones  have  eight  arms  and  two  elongated  ten- 
tacles with  expanded  ends,  and  movable  eyes. 

ARGON  AUTID;E,  OR  PAPER -SAILOR  FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  contains  cephalopods  which  have  the  dorsal  arms 
webbed  at  the  extremity,  secreting  a  symmetrical  con- 
voluted shell,  which  is  thin  and  translucent.  The  argo- 


DIBRANCHIATA :    OCTOPODID^.  4/3 

naut  sits  in  its  shell,  with  its  siphon  turned  towards  the 
keel,  and  its  dorsal,  sail-shaped  arms  closely  applied  to 
the  shell,  and  swims  by  ejecting  water  from  the  funnel. 

Fig.  375. 


Argonaut,  or  Paper-Sailor,  Argonauta  argo,  Linn.     One  fourth.*    Warm  Seas. 

This  is  the  Nautilus  of  Aristotle,  who  described  it  as  sail- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  with  its  sail-shaped  arms 
spread  to  the  breeze ;  a  mere  fable. 

OCTOPODID^E.  —  This  Family  comprises  cephalopods 
with  eight  arms  which  are  similar,  elongated,  and  united 

Fig.  376. 


Octopus  t-uberculatiis,  Bl.     One  fifth      Mediterranean. 

at  the  base  by  a  web  ;  and  whose  shell  is  represented  by 
two  short  styles  imbedded  in  the  substance  of  the  mantle. 

*  One  fourth  of  the  linear  dimensions.     So  in  all  similar  cases. 


474 


MOLLUSKS  I    CEPHALOPODS. 


They  frequent  rocky  shores.  They  are  exposed  for  sale 
in  the  markets  of  Naples  and  Smyrna,  and  in  the  bazaars 
of  India.  They  vary  from  an  inch  to  two  feet  in  length. 
TEUTHID^E,  LOLIGO,  OR  SQUID  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  cephalopods  with  an  elongated  body,  fins  short, 


Fig.  377- 


Squid,  Loligo  Bartramii,  LeS.     One  half.     Atlantic  Coast  of  the  United  States. 

broad,  and  mostly  terminal.  The  internal  shell,  or  pen, 
consists  of  three  parts,  a  shaft  and  two  lateral  expansions. 

BELEMNITID.E,  OR  BELEMNITE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
embraces  cephalopods  which  have  a  shell  consisting  of  a 
pen  terminating  at  the  hind  extremity  in  a  chambered 
cone.  A  hundred  species  have  been  found  imbedded  in 
the  rocks,  but  there  are  no  living  representatives. 

SEPIAD^E,  OR  CUTTLE-FISH  FAMILY.  --  This  Family 
comprises  cephalopods  whose  calcareous  internal  shell 
or  cuttle-bone  consists  of  a  broad  laminated  plate,  termi- 
nating behind  in  a  hollow  imperfectly  chambered  apex. 
They  are  distributed  world-wide,  and  are  from  three 
inches  to  three  feet  long. 

SPIRULID/E.  -  -  This  Family  comprises  cephalopods 
^whose*  shell  is  wholly  nacreous,  discoidal,  whorls  separate, 

Fig.  373. 


Spirula  Ice-vis,  Gray.     One  half.     New  Zealand. 

chambered,  and  with  a  ventral  siphuncle.     Three  species 
are  known,  which  inhabit  warm  seas. 


TETRABRANCHIATA  :    NAUTILIDjE. 


475 


SUB-SECTION    II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  TETRABRANCHIATA,  OR  FOUR-GILLED  CEPHALO- 

PODS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  cephalopods  which  have  four 
branchiae,  an  external  chambered  shell,  eyes  peduncu- 
lated,  mandibles  calcareous,  and  arms  very  numerous. 
The  shell  is  an  extremely  elongated  cone,  and  is  straight 
or  variously  folded  or  coiled,  and  is  divided  into  cham- 
bers by  partitions  called  septa,  the  animal  as  it  grows 
forming  a  wall  behind  itself  at  regular  intervals,  and 
always  living  in  the  outer  chamber,  communicating,  how- 
ever, by  a  tube  or  siphuncle  with  all  the  others.  The 
Tetrabranchiates  are  best  known  under  the  name  of  Cham- 
bered Shells.  Although  but  one  or  two  species  are  now 
living,  more  than  fourteen  hundred  species  have  been 
found  imbedded  in  the  rocks. 


379- 


Pearly  Ifautilus,  Nautihts  pompili  us,  Linn.     Cut  open  to  show  the  chambers  and 
siphuncle.     One  half.     Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 


OR   NAUTILUS    FAMILY.  —  This   Family 
contains  a  single  living  representative  species,  or  perhaps 


476 


MOLLUSKS  I    GASTEROPODS. 


two,  and  its  fossil  allies.     They  have  the  sutures  of  the 

shell  simple,  and  siphuncle  central. 

ORTHOCERATiDyE.  —  This  Family  contains  cephalopods 

which  have  the  shell  straight,  curved,  or  discoidal.    They 

are  all  fossil,  and  abound  in  the  Paleozoic  Rocks. 

AMMONITIDA:,  OR  AMMONITE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 

embraces  cephalopods  which 
have  a  shell  bearing  a  close 
resemblance  to  that  of  the 
Nautilidae,  but  with  the  su- 
tures angulated,  or  lobed 
and  foliated,  and  the  siphun- 
cle external,  that  is  dorsal, 
as  regards  the  shell.  They 
are  all  fossil,  and  abound  in 
the  rocks  below  the  Ter- 
tiary. The  species  are  nu- 
merous, and  vary  from  an 
inch  to  two  or  three  feet  in 
diameter. 


Ammonite. 


SECTION   II. 

THE    CLASS    OF    GASTEROPODA,    OR    GASTEROPODS. 

THE  Class  of  Gasteropoda  comprises  mollusks  which 
effect  their  locomotion  by  means  of  a  broad  muscular 
expansion  called  a  foot.  Some  of  them  are  destitute  of  a 
shell,  but  most  are  protected  by  a  single  shell,  and  are 
often  called  Univalves.  When  first  hatched,  they  are 
always  provided  with  a  shell,  but  in  many  families  this  is 
soon  concealed  in  the  mantle,  or  wholly  disappears. 

Gasteropods,  considered  in  regard  to  their  manner  of 
breathing,  may  be  divided  into  two  groups ;  —  Pulmo- 
nifera,  or  Air-Breathers;  and  Branchifera,  or  Water- 
Breathers.  The  former  undergo  no  apparent  metamor- 


GASTEROPODA  I    STROMBID.E.  477 

phosis  ;  the  latter  at  first  have  a  shell  capable  of  entirely 
concealing  them,  and  closed  by  an  operculum,  and,  in- 
stead of  creeping,  they  swim  with  a  pair  of  ciliated  ap- 
pendages growing  from  the  sides  of  the  head.  The  shells 
of  Gasteropods,  though  always  single,  and  usually  spiral, 
vary  almost  endlessly  in  form  and  color.  The  names 
applied  to  the  different  parts  of  a  gasteropod  shell  are 
shown  by  Fig.  381.  Shells  which  are  always  concealed 
by  the  mantle  are  colorless ;  those  which  are  covered 
when  the  animals  expand  are  glazed  or  enamelled  on  the 

Fig.  381. 


Spire.     W,  whorls. 


Columella. 

Umbilicus ....    >^5§irY  a"""* 

Aperture. 


Canal 

surface ;  and  all  other  shells  are  more  or  less  covered 
with  an  epidermis.  The  Class  is  composed  of  three 
orders,  —  Gasteropoda  proper,  Heteropoda,  and  Ptero- 
poda. 

SUB-SECTION    I. 

THE   ORDER   OF   GASTEROPODA   PROPER. 

THIS  Order  embraces  about  forty  families,  or,  accord- 
ing to  the  more  recent  writers,  a  much  greater  number, 
as  several  of  the  old  families  have  been  much  subdivided. 

STROMBID^E,  OR   STROMBUS   FAMILY.  —  This   Family 


4/8 


MOLLUSKS  :    GASTEROPODS. 


contains  gasteropods  which  have  a  shell  with  an  expand- 
ed lip  deeply  notched  near  the  canal,  and  a  claw-shaped 
operculum.  They  feed  on  dead  animals.  Their  shells 

Fig.  382. 


Pteroceras  lambis,  L.     One  half.     Chinese  Seas.1 


Fig.  383- 


Aporrhais  occidentalis.  Beck. 


Fig-  384- 


Strombus pugilis,  L.     One  half. 
West  Indies. 


New  England. 

are  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shell  cameos. 
The  living  species  are  estimated  at  about  eighty,  and 
the  fossil  at  two  hundred.  Marine 


*  Foreign  shells  are  quite  as  likely  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  American 
students  as  those  of  our  own  coast. 


GASTEROPODA  :    BUCCINID^. 


479 


MURICID.E,  OR  MUREX  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  is  rep- 
resented by  about  nine  hundred  living,  and  about  seven 
hundred  fossil  species  of  gasteropods.  They  are  preda- 
tory on  other  mollusks.  Marine. 


Fig.  385- 


Fig.  386. 


Murex  tenuispina,  Lam.     One  half. 
Moluccas. 

Fig.  387- 


Pyrula  cana.liculata,  Linn. 
One  half.     United  States. 


Fig.  388. 


Tritonium  pygmceutn,  Gould. 
New  England. 


Raitella  f^ran:f--ra,  Lar 
Two  thirds.      Australia. 


BucciNiDyE,  OR  WHELK  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  con- 
tains gasteropods  which  have  the  shell  notched  in  front, 
or  the  canal  abruptly  reflected.  There  are  about  one 
thousand  living,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  fossil  spe- 
cies. They  are  marine  and  carnivorous. 


480 


MOLLUSKS  :    GASTEROPODS. 


Fig.  390. 


Fig.  389. 


Buccinum  undainm,  L. 
North  Atlantic. 


Fig.  391- 


Harpa  ventricosa,  Lam. 
One  half.     Mauritius. 

Fig.  393- 


Fig.  392- 


Ricinula  arachnoides,  Lam. 
China. 


Oliva  porphyria,  L. 
One  half.    Panama. 


Fusus  decemcostat-ns,  Say. 
United  State^. 

CONID/E,  OR  CONE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  embraces 

gasteropods  which  have  the 
shell  inversely  conical,  aper- 
ture large  and  narrow,  outer 
lip  notched,  and  the  opercu- 
lum  minute.  There  are  eight 
hundred  and  fifty  living,  find 
four  hundred  fossil  species. 


Conus  tnarmoreus,  Gm.     Two  thirds 
China. 


GASTEROPODA  I   VOLUTID^E. 


VOLUTIM:,  OR  VOLUTE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  con- 
tains gasteropods  which  have  the  shell  turreted  or  convo- 


Fig.  395- 


Fig.  396. 


Mitra  epLco^alis,  D'Arg.     One  half.     Ceylon. 
Fig-  397- 


Valuta  musica,  Linn.   One  half. 
West  Indies. 


Marginella  wibeculata.  Lam. 
Two  thirds.     W.  Africa. 


lute,  and  the  aperture  notched  in  front.     There  are  seven 
hundred  living,  and  two  hundred  fossil  species.      Marine. 
CYPR.EIDJE,  OR  COWRY  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises gasteropods  which  have  the  shell  convolute,  enam- 


Fig.  398- 


Fig-  399- 


Omilum  ovum,  L.    One  half.    New  Guinea. 


Cypreza.     One  half.     Indian  Ocean. 


Figs.  400,  401 


elled,  spire  concealed,  aperture  narrow 

and  channelled  at  each  end,  the  outer  lip 

inflected,  and  no  operculum.    There  are 

two  hundred  living,  and  one  hundred    Trivia  europea,  Mont 

fossil  species.     Marine.  Britain. 

NATICID^E,  OR  NATICA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  con- 
tains gasteropods  which  have  the  shell  globular,  few- 
whorled,  spire  small,  obtuse,  aperture  semi-lunar,  and 

21  E  E 


482 


MOLLUSKS  :    GASTEROPODS. 


Fig.  402. 


Sigaretus  haliotoides,  L. 
West  Indies. 


Fig.  404- 


Fig.  405. 


Fig.  403.        the    operculum   horny. 
'  There  are  two  hundred 
and    fifty    living,    and 
three  hundred  and  fifty 
fossil  species.     Marine. 
PYRAMIDELLID.E.  — 

Natica  triseriata,  Say.    _,,    .._...  . 

coast  of  New  England.  This  Family  comprises 
gasteropods  which  have 
the  shell  spiral,  turret- 
ed,   and    the    aperture 
small.     The  living  spe- 
cies are  about  two  hun- 
dred, and  the  fossil  over 
three  hundred  ;  all  ma- 
rine.    Many  of  the  fos- 
sil species  are  gigantic  compared  with  those  now  existing. 
CERITHIAD^E.  —  This    Family    contains    gasteropods 
which  have  the  shell   spiral,  elongated,  many-whorled, 
aperture  channelled  in  front,  the  lip  generally  expanded 
in  the  adult,  and  the  operculum  horny  and  spiral.     The 
Fig.  4o6.  species  are  marine,  estuary,  or  fresh- 

water.   The  living  species  are  two  hun- 
dred, and  the  fossil  six  hundred. 

Fig.  407. 

Fig.  408. 


Pyramidelladolobrata 

Gmei.  West  indies. 


^' 


Cerithium  nodolosum,  Brug.  ^^  j0      Southern  States. 

One  half.     Molucca.  Melania.     Western  States. 

MELANIAD^:.  —  This   Family   comprises    gasteropods 
which  have  the  shell  spiral,  turreted,  aperture  often  chan- 


GASTEROPODA:  PALUDINID.E.  483 

nelled  or  notched  in  front,  and  a  dark  thick  epidermis  ; 
operculum  horny  and  spiral.  They  inhabit  fresh  waters. 
There  are  five  hundred  living  species.  Figs.  407,  408. 

TURRITELLID^E,     OR    WENTLE-TRAP     FAMILY.  -  This 

Family  embraces  gasteropods  which  have  the  shell  tubu- 

Fig.  409. 


Fig.  4 


Scalaria  pretiosa,  Lam.        Vermetus  lumbricalis,  Gm. 

Two  thirds.     China.  West  Indies. 

Turritella  imbricate,  L. 
West  Indies. 

lar  or  spiral,  and  the  upper  part  partitioned  off;  all  ma- 
rine. There  are  two  hundred  living  and  three  hundred 
fossil  species. 

LITORINID.E,  OR  PERIWINKLE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  gasteropods  which 

0  Fig.  412. 

have  the  shell  spiral,  turbi- 
nated  or  depressed,  the  aper- 
ture rounded,  and  the  oper- 
culum horny.  They  inhabit 
the  sea  near  the  shore,  and 

feed  on  algae.  The  living  species  are  more  than  three 
hundred,  and  the  fossil  more  than  two  hundred. 

PALUDINID.E,  OR  RIVER-SNAIL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
embraces  fresh-water  gasteropods  which  have  the  shell 
conical  or  globular,  and  covered  with  an  olive-green 
epidermis  ;  tentacles  long  and  slender,  and  eyes  on  short 


484 


MOLLUSKS  :    GASTEROPODS. 


Fig.  415- 


Fig.  414- 


Neritina  zebra,  Brug. 
Pacific. 

Fig.  418. 


Nerita  nstulata,  L. 
Scinde. 


Valvata  tricnrinattz,  Say. 
United  States. 


Paludina  iniegra,  Say. 
Western  and  Middle  States. 

pedicels   outside   the   tentacles.      Operculum   horny   or 
shelly.     There  are  one  hundred  and  fifty  living  species. 
Fig.  416.  Fig.  417.  NERITID^:,  OR  NE- 

RITA FAMILY. — This 
Family  contains  gas- 
teropods  which  have 
the  shell  thick,  glob- 
ular. Three  hun- 
dred living  species. 

TURBINID^E,  OR  TOP-SHELL 

FAMILY. — This  Family  com- 
prises   gasteropods      which 
have    the    shell    turbinated 
and    the     operculum     very 
small.    The  shell  is  brilliant 
pearly  when  the  epidermis  is 
removed.     There  are  about 
nine  hundred  living,  and  as  many  fossil  species.     Marine. 
Fis-  419-  HALIOTID.E,  OR  EAR-SHELL  FAM- 

ILY. — -  This  Family  contains  gastero- 
pods which  have  the  shell  spiral, 
ear -shaped,  or  trochiform,  and  no 
operculum.  Haliotis  is  much  used 
for  ornamental  work.  There  are  one 
hundred  living,  and  more  than  one 

Halioits  tuberculata,  L.          ,  .        -     r 

Britain.  hundred  fossil  species.     Marine. 


Trochrts  zizyphinus,  L.     Britain. 


GASTEROPODA  :   PATELLID^. 


485 


IANTHINID^E.  —  This  Family  is  represented  by  the 
Violet-Snail  and  its  half-dozen  allies. 


lanthinafragilis,  Lam.     Atlantic. 
a,  raft ;  b,  egg  capsules  ;  c,  gills  ;  d,  tentacles  and  eye-stalks. 

FlSSURELLID.E,  OR  KEY-HOLE  LlMPET 

FAMILY. — This  Family  embraces  gas- 
teropods  which  have  the  shell  conical, 
and  apex  recurved.  There  are  about 
two  hundred  living,  and  one  hundred 
fossil  species.  Marine. 

CALYPTR^IM:,  OR  BONNET-LIMPET   FAMILY.  —  This 
Family  contains  gasteropods  which  are  found  adhering 

Fig.  423- 

^^'~-~;~-2^& 

Fig.  422. 


Fissure  Ha  Lister i.  Orb. 
West  Indies. 


Calyptra-a  cqnestris,  L. 
Philippines. 


Crepidula fornicata,  Say. 
New  England. 


to  stones  and  shells,  most  of  them  never  quitting  the  spot 
where  they  first  settle.    There  are  one  hundred  and  sixty 
living,  and  one  hundred  fossil  species,  all  marine. 
PATELLID^:,  OR  LIMPET  FAMILY.  Fig.  424. 

—  This  Family  comprises  gastero- 
pods which  have  the  shell  conical, 
with  the  apex  turned  forward. 
There  are  more  than  one  hundred 
living,  and  one  hundred  fossil  species. 


Patella  te-tndinali<!,  M'ill. 
Coast  of  New  England. 


486 


MOLLUSKS:   GASTEROPODS. 


Fis-  425- 


Dentalium  dentalis,  L. 
Atlantic. 


DENTALIAD.E.  —  This  Family 
contains  the  Tooth-shells,  of  which 
there  are  fifty  living,  and  seventy 
fossil  species  ;  all  marine. 

OR  CHITON  FAMILY.  —  This 


Family  comprises  gasteropods  which  have 
a  shell  composed  of  eight  transverse  imbri- 
cating plates,  lodged  in  a  coriaceous  mantle. 
There  are  more  than  two  hundred  living 
species,  and  about  one  eighth  as  many  fos- 
sil ;  all  marine. 

Fig.  427. 


Chiton  ruber,  L. 
New  England. 


Fig.  428. 


Helix  albolabris,  Say.     United  States. 


Fig.  429. 


Fig.  430. 


Succinea  obliqna,  Say. 
Western  States. 

Fig.  431. 


Pupa  incana,  Say.      Florida. 


Bulimiis  excelsus,  Gould. 
California. 


Helix  albolabris,  Say. 
Northern  States. 


HELICID^E,  OR   LAND-SNAIL  FAMILY.  —  This    Family 
contains   terrestrial   gasteropods   which    are   distributed 


GASTEROPODA  !    LIMNEID^E.  487 

world-wide,  and  of  which  there  are  four  thousand  living 
species,  and  three  hundred  fossil.  * 

LIMACID.E,  OR  SLUG  FAMILY.  —  Fis  432. 

This  Family  comprises  terrestrial 

Which    have    the    Shell  Lima*  campestru,  Binney. 


small  or  rudimentary,  and  usually 

internal.     Seventy  living  and  a  few  fossil  species. 

LIMNEID^:,  OR  POND-SNAIL   FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  gasteropods  which  have  the  shell  thin  and  horn- 

Fig.  433- 

Fig.  435- 
Fig-  434- 


Planorbis  lentus,  Say. 

United  States.  L  ^^  desidiosat 

Physa  heterostropha,  Say.  United  States. 

United  States. 

colored,  and  capable  of  containing  the  whole  animal  when 
retracted.  Limnaeids  inhabit  fresh  water,  and  deposit 
their  spawn  in  oblong  transparent  masses  on  aquatic 
plants  and  stones.  There  are  one  hundred  and  sixty  liv- 
ing and  about  as  many  fossil  species. 

AURICULID,E.  —  This  Family  comprises  gasteropods 
which  have  the  shell  spiral,  with  a  horny  epidermis,  and 
the  body  whorl  large.  Fifty  or  sixty  species  are  known. 

CYCLOSTOMID.E.  —  This  Family  embraces  seven  hun- 
dred species  of  gasteropods,  whose  general  form  is  shown 
by  Figs.  436,  437.  Twenty  fossil  species.  Terrestrial. 

Fig-  437- 
Fig.  436. 


Helicina  orbiculata,  Say.  ^rr  '  Aciculofuua, 

United  States.  Walker.     Britain. 

Cydostoma  dentatum. 
United  States. 

ACICULID^.  —  This  Family  contains  gasteropods  which 
have  the  shell  long  and  cylindrical.     Twenty-five  species. 


MOLLUSKS  :   GASTEROPODS. 


Fig.  439.  TORNATELLID.E.  —  This  Family  compris- 

es gasteropods  which  have  the  shell  solid, 
aperture  long  and  narrow,  and  columella 
plaited.  There  are  fifty  living  and  one 
hundred  and  fifty  fossil  species. 

BULLION.  —  This  Family  contains  one 
hundred  and  fifty  living  and  nearly  one 
hundred  fossil  species.  They  have  the 
shell  globular  or  cylindrical,  convoluted 
and  thin.  Marine. 

DORID.E,  TRITONID.E,  ^OLID^E,  ELY- 
SIAD^:,  &c.  —  These  Families  contain  sea- 
slugs  which  have  no  shell  -except  in  the  embryo  state. 
Three  hundred  species.  Figs.  441-444. 


Torna tella  ijrna tills, 
L.     Britain. 

Fig.  440. 


Sulla  solitaria,  Say. 
United  States. 


Fig.  441. 


Fig.  443. 


Fig.  442. 


Doris  Johnstoni,  Alder  &  Hancock. 
Britain. 


Fig.  444. 


Elysia  viridis,  Mont. 
Britain. 


Eolis  coronata,  Forbes. 
Britain. 


Tritonia  plcbeia, 
Johnston.    Britain. 


Figs.  445,  446. 


SUB-SECTION    II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  HETEROPODA,  OR  HETEROPODS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  mollusks  whose 
general   appearance   differs  considerably 
from  the  true  gasteropods.     They  live  in 
the  open  sea,   and  swim  at  the   surface. 
Atlanta  Peroniitis&.  They  belong  to  two  families,  —  Firolidae 

South  Atlantic.  ,  \    .          ." 

and  Atlantidae. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA  :    OSTREID^E.  489 

SUB-SECTION    III. 
THE  ORDER  OF  PTEROPODA,   OR   PTEROPODS. 

THIS  Order  also  embraces  mollusks  which  inhabit  the 
open  sea,  where  they  move  in  immense  swarms,  some- 
Fig.  447-  Fig.  449. 
Fig.  448. 


Limacina  antarctica, 
Hooker.    South  Polar  Seas. 

Hyalea  tridentata,  Gmel.  Clio  borealis,  Brug. 

Atlantic  and  Mediterranean.  Arctic  Seas. 

times  leagues  in  extent.   They  comprise  three  families, 
Hyaleidae,  Limacinidae,  and  Cliidae. 


SECTION    III. 

THE  CLASS  OF  ACEPHALA,  OR  ACEPHALS. 

THIS  Class  comprises  mollusks  which  have  the  head 
obscurely  indicated.  There  are  four  orders,  —  Lamelli- 
branchiata,  Tunicata,  Brachiopoda,  and  Bryozoa. 

SUB-SECTION   I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA,  OR  LAMELLIBRANCHIATES. 

THIS  Order  contains  acephalous  mollusks  which  have 
their  gills  in  lamellae  on  the  sides,  and  protected  by  a  shell 
composed  of  two  valves  occupying  a  similar  position, 
namely,  right  and  left.  A  single  valve  with  the  names 
of  its  different  parts  is  shown  in  Fig.  450,  on  the  next 
page.  There  are  more  than  twenty  families. 

OsTREiDyE,  OR  OYSTER  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises bivalves,  of  which  the  common  Oyster  is  a  well- 


490 


MOLLUSKS:   ACEPHALS. 


known  representative.  There  are  about  three  hundred 
living  and  one  thousand  fossil  species.  Ostrea  and  Pecten, 
Fig.  451,  are  the  prominent  genera. 


Names  of  the  parts  of  a  Bivalve  Shell. 

a,  anterior  retractor  ;  a',  posterior  retractor  ;  t,  lateral  teeth  ;  c,  cardinal  tooth  ;  /,  lunale  ; 
«,  umbo  ;  ft,  hinge  ligament  ;  s,  sinus  occupied  by  retractor  of  siphons  ;  ^,  pallial  im- 
pression. 

AVICULID.E,  OR  PEARL-OYSTER  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily embraces  acephalous  mollusks  which  have  the  valves 
unequal  and  very  oblique.  They  inhabit  tropical  and 
temperate  seas,  and  yield  the  Mother-of-pearl,  and  the 
Oriental  pearls,  so  highly  prized.  They  are  found  in 


Fig.  451. 


Fig.  452. 


Pecten  irradians,  Lam.     About  one  half. 
From  Cape  Ann  southward. 


Mytilus  edulis,  L.     Grows  larger. 
Both  shores  of  the  Atlantic. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA  : 


Th 


about  twelve  fathoms  of  water. 

hundred  living  and  six  hundred  fossil  species,  .big.  453. 
MYTILIM:,  OR  SEA-MUSSEL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  acephala  which  have  the  shell  equivalve,  oval, 
or  elongated,  and  the  epidermis  thick  and  dark.  They 
seek  concealment,  and  spin  a  nest  of  sand,  or  burrow  in 
mud-banks.  There  are  more  than  one  hundred  living, 
and  two  hundred  and  fifty  fossil  species.  Fig.  452. 


Fig-  453- 


Fig-  454- 


A  vicula  hirundo,  L.     One  half. 

Mediterranean.  Leda  limatula.     New  England. 

ARCADE.  —  This  Family  embraces  acephala  which 
have  the  shell  regular,  with  a  strong  epidermis,  and  the 
hinge  with  a  row  of  comb-like  teeth.  There  are  three 
hundred  living,  and  six  hundred  fossil  species.  Fig.  454. 

TRIGONIAD^:,  OR  TRIGONIA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  acephala  which  have  the  shell  trigonal,  and  the 
hinge  teeth  few  and  diverging.  There  are  three  living 
species,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty  or  more  fossil. 

UNIONIDJE,  OR  POND  AND  RIVER  MUSSEL  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  embraces  a  large  number  of  bivalves  which 
are  found  in  ponds,  brooks,  rivers,  and  fresh-water  lakes. 
They  are  the  Nai'des  of  authors.  Figs.  456-460. 

CHAMID.E. —  This  Family  comprises  acephala  which 
have  the  valves  unequal,  thick,  two  hinge  teeth  in  one 
valve,  and  one  in  the  other.  Fifty  living  species. 

TRIDACNID/E.  —  This  Family  comprises  very  large  bi- 
valves of  the  Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans.  The  shell  some- 
times weighs  five  hundred  pounds,  the  animal  twenty. 

CARDIAD^:,  OR  COCKLE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces acephala  which  have  the  shell  cordate  and  orna- 
mented, with  radiating  ribs.  There  are  two  hundred  liv*- 
ing,  and  three  hundred  fossil  species.  Marine.  Fig.  455. 


492 


MOLLUSKS:   ACEPHALS. 

455-  Fig.  456. 


Cardicum    islandicum,    Linn. 

One  half.    New  England.  Unio  com^anatus^^     New  England  and  westward. 


Fig.  458. 


Fig.  459- 


Unioflexuosus,  Raf.     Two  thirds.     Western  States. 
Fig.  460. 


Unio  spinosa,  Lea.    One  half. 
Georgia. 


Unio  clava,  Lam.     Two  thirds.     Western  States. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA  I    VENERID.E. 


493 


LUCINID.E.  —  This  Family  contains  acephala  which 
have  the  shell  orbicular.  There  are  one  hundred  and 
twenty  living,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  fossil  species. 
Marine.  Fig.  463. 

CYCLADID.E. —  This  Family  contains  acephala  which 
have  the  shell  sub-orbicular,  with  a  thick  horny  epider- 
mis. There  are  two  hundred  living,  and  one  hundred 
fossil  species.  Fresh  water.  Figs.  462,  464. 

Fig.  461. 

Fig.  464. 
Fig.  462.  Fig.  463. 


Sph&rium  rhont- 
boideutn,  Say. 
Northern  States. 


Thyasira  Gouldii, 

Stim.     Coast  of 

New  England.     Sp)utrium  partumeium, 

Say.     Northern  States. 


A  s  tarte  castanea,  Say. 
Casco  Bay  and  southward. 

CYPRINID^:.  —  This  Family  comprises  acephala  which 
have  the  shell  oval  or  elongated,  valves  solid,  and  the 
epidermis  thick  and  dark.  There  are  more  than  one 
hundred  living,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  fossil  species. 
Marine.  Fig.  461. 

VENERID.E.  —  This  Family  embraces  acephala  which 
have  the  shell  sub-orbicular  or  oblong,  and  the  hinge  with 


Fig.  465. 


Fig.  466. 


Cytkerea  dionf,  L.     Two  thirds. 
West  Indies. 


Mactra  elliptica.     Britain. 


three  diverging  teeth  in  each  valve.     There  are  nearly  six 
hundred  living,  and  three  hundred  fossil  species.    Marine. 


494 


MOLLUSKS  I    ACEPHALS. 


MACTRHXE.  —  This  Family  contains  acephala  which 
have  the  shell  trigonal,  and  the  hinge  with  two  cardinal 
teeth,  besides  the  lateral  ones. 

TELLINID^:.  —  This  Family  comprises  acephala  which 
have  the  shell  compressed,  and  the  muscular  impressions 
rounded  and  polished.  There  are  three  hundred  living 
and  two  hundred  fossil  species. 

Fig.  467. 

Fig.  468.  Fig.  469. 


Tellina  donacina.     Britain. 


Tel  Una  tenera.  Say.          Tellina  tent  a,  Say. 
Our  coast.  Our  coast. 


SOLENID.E,  OR  RAZOR-SHELL  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
comprises  acephala  which  have  the  shell  much  elongated 

Fig.  470. 


Solen  ensts,  Linn.     About  one  third.     Both  shores  of  the  Atlantic. 

and  gaping  at  both  ends.     Fifty  or  more  species  are  liv- 
ing, and  as  many  more  fossil. 

MYACID^:,  OR  CLAM  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  contains 
the  common  edible  Clam  and  its  allies,  of  which  there 

Fig.  471. 

^fc^ 

Fig.  472. 


Pandora  obtusa.     Britain. 


Mya  arenaria,  L.     One  half. 
Northern  States. 


are  about  one  hundred  living  and  two  hundred  and  fifty 
fossil  species.     Marine. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA  I    PHOLADID^. 


495 


ANATINIM:,  OR  LANTERN-SHELL  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily embraces  acephala  which  have  the  shell  thin  and  often 
inequi valve.  There  are  less  than  one  hundred  living  spe- 
cies, and  four  hundred  fossil.  Fig.  472. 

GASTROCH^NID^E. —  This  Family  comprises  acephala 
which  have  the  shell  thin,  and  gaping ;  often  cemented 

Fi£.  473-  Fig.  474- 


Gastrockeena  modioceiui,  Aspergillum  vaginiferum,  Lam.     One  half.     Red  Sea. 

Lam.     Galway. 

into  a  shelly  tube  when  adult.    There  are  twenty  or  thirty 
living,  and  as  many  fossil  species. 

PHOLADID.E,  OR  PHOLAS  AND  SHIP-WORM  FAMILY.  — 
This  Family  embraces  acephala  which  have  the  shell 

Fig.  476. 
Fig-  475- 


Pholas  Bakeri,  Desh.     One  half. 
India. 


P kolas  crispata,  Linn. 
New  England  and  eastward. 


open  at  both  ends,  thin,  white,  exceedingly  hard,  and 
armed  with  rasp-like  imbrications.  They  burrow  in  al- 
most all  substances.  Fifty  or  sixty  species  are  living,  and 
as  many  more  are  fossil.  Marine. 


SUB-SECTION   II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  TUNICATA,   OR  ASCIDIAXS. 

THIS  Order  comprises  acephalous  mollusks  which  have 
no  hard  parts,  but  which  are  protected  by  an  elastic  tunic 
instead  of  a  shell.  Some  are  transparent,  so  that  their 
whole  internal  structure  may  be  easily  seen.  Several 
families,  and  quite  a  large  number  of  species,  are  known. 


496 


MOLLUSKS  :    ACEPHALS. 


Fig.  477. 


Boltenia  fedunciilata, 

M.-£d\v.    One  eighteenth. 

New  Zealand. 


They  are  not  uncommon  on  the  coast 
of  the  United  States. 

ASCIDIAD.E.  —  This  Family  contains 
Simple  Ascidians  which  are  fixed,  and 
solitary  or  gregarious. 

The  Genus  Ascidia  contains  A.  rus- 
iica,  Linn.,  found  in  clusters  adhering 
to  stones  and  floating  timbers  in  Bos- 
ton Harbor.  It  is  from  the  size  of  a 
pea  to  a  half  or  three  quarters  of  an 
inch  in  diameter. 


SUB-SECTION  III. 

THE  ORDER  OF  BRACHIOPODA,  OR  BRACHIOPODS. 

This  Order  comprises  mollusks  whose  shells,  com- 
posed of  two  valves,  occupy  a  dorsal  and  ventral  posi- 
tion in  relation  to  the  animal.  These  valves,  though 
unequal  in  size,  are  symmetrical  in  shape.  The  dorsal 
valve  is  the  smaller,  and  is  always  free  and  imperfo- 
rate.  The  larger  valve  is  the  ventral,  and  has  a  promi- 
nent beak  through  which  the  organ  of  adhesion  passes, 
by  which  the  animal  is  attached  to  submarine  bodies. 
The  two  valves  are  articulated  by  two  curved  teeth  de- 
veloped from  the  margin  of  the  ventral  valve,  and  re- 
ceived by  sockets  in  the  dorsal,  and  this  makes  a  hinge 
so  complete  that  the  two  valves  cannot  be  separated 
without  injury. 

Brachiopods  take  their  name  from  two 
long  ciliated  arms,  shown  in  Fig.  478, 
growing  from  the  sides  of  the  mouth,  by 
which  they  create  currents  in  the  wa- 
ter, and  thus  secure  their  food.  These 
animals  are  found  hanging  from  the  un- 
der sides  of  shelving  rocks,  from  coral 


Fig.  478. 


BRACHIOPODA.  497 

branches,  and  other  submarine  bodies.     They  inhabit  all 
seas.     There  are  seventy-five  living,  and  more  than  twelve 

Fig-  479-  Fig.  480. 


Terebratula  septentrionalis,  Couthouy. 

Small  specimen.     New  England  and 
Terebratula  septentrionalis,  Couth.  northward 


Fig.  481. 


Lingula  anatina,  Lam.     One  half.     Philippines. 

hundred  fossil  species.  The  principal  families  are  Terre- 
bratulidas,  Spirulidae,  Rhynchonellidae,  Orthidae,  Produc- 
tidae,  and  Lingulidae. 

Mr.  Edward  S.  Morse,  in  a  paper  published  in  the  Es- 
sex Institute  Proceedings,  entitled  "  Classification  of  the 
Mollusca  based  on  the  Principle  of  Cephalization,"  claims 
to  have  shown  that  what  has  been  regarded  as  the  dorsal 
valve  in  Brachiopods  is  the  ventral  valve,  and  what  has 
heretofore  been  considered  the  posterior  pole  of  the  same 
is^the  anterior. 

SUB-SECTION    IV. 

THE  ORDER  OF  BRYOZOA,  OR  BRYOZOANS. 

THE  Bryozoa  —  also  called  Polyzoa  —  are  very  small  or 
minute  molltisks  growing  in  clusters  upon  rocks,  shells, 
and  sea-weeds,  which  they  ornament  with  their  delicate 
ramifications.  Some  kinds,  however,  inhabit  only  fresh 
waters.  All  are  polyp-like  in  general  appearance,  -but 
molluscan  in  structure.  The  aggregated  cells  of  some 
genera  are  coral  or  coral-like. 

F  F 


CHAPTER  V, 

THE  BRANCH  OF  RADIATA,  OR  RADIATES. 

THIS  Branch  includes  all  animals  whose  parts  radiate 
from  a  vertical  axis  ;  or,  in  other  words,  whose  structure 
clearly  exhibits  the  idea  of  radiation.  The  Radiates  are 
all  aquatic,  mainly  marine,  and  constitute  the  lowest 
Branch  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  There  are  at  least  ten 
thousand  living  species  distributed  among  three  classes, 
—  Echinodermata  or  Echinoderms,  Acalephs  or  Jelly- 
Fishes,  and  Polypi  or  Polyps. 

SECTION   I. 

THE  CLASS  OF  ECHINODERMATA,  OR  ECHINODERMS. 

THIS  Class  comprises  radiates  which  have  a  tough  cov- 
ering containing  more  or  less  calcareous  particles,  or  a 
shell  composed  of  pieces  which  are  movable,  or  bound 
together  and  covered  with  tubercles  or  spines,  the  body 
divided  into  two  well-marked  regions,  the  oral  and  ab- 
oral,  —  oractinal  and  abactinal,* —  and  all  the  parts  raHi- 
ating  from  the  oral  opening  and  meeting  in  the  ab-oral 
region,  and  along  certain  of  the  rays  regular  rows  of  tubu- 
lar suckers  used  in  locomotion,  and  called  ambulacra ;  and 

*  Professor  Agassiz  proposes  the  following  new  names  for  the  different 
parts  of  Radiates,  viz. :  —  actinostome  for  the  so-called  mouth  ;  spherosome 
for  the  body  wall ;  actinal  for  the  pole  where  the  actinostome  is  situated  ; 
abactinal  for  the  opposite  pole ;  and  spheromeres  for  the  homological  seg- 
ments of  the  body. 


HOLOTHURIOIDS.  499 

the  internal  organs  are  contained  within  walls  of  their 
own.  The  muscular  system  is  well  developed.  The  ner- 
vous system  consists  of  a  ring  around  the  commencement 
of  the  oesophagus,  which  sends  off  branches  along  the 
rays.  Respiration  is  performed  by  means  of  branchiae,  by 
organs  performing  other  functions,  and  by  water  passing 
into  the  cavity  of  the  body,  and  thus  aerating  the  blood 
through  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  viscera.  Echinoderms 
increase  by  means  of  eggs,  are  marine,  and  are  abundant 
on  almost  every  coast;  and  the  remains  of  extinct  species 
fill  the  rocks  in  many  regions.  It  is  an  interesting  fact, 
that  in  Radiates  there  is  generally  a  definite  or  reigning 
number  to  which  the  parts  conform.  In  Echinoderms 
this  number  \sfive;  that  is,  the  parts  of  a  given  kind  are 
generally  five  or  a  multiple  of  five.  They  embrace  five 
orders,*  —  Holothurioids,  Echinoids,  Asterioids,  Ophiuri- 
oids,  and  Crinoids  ;  ranking  in  the  order  named. 

SUB-SECTION    I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  HOLOTHURIOIDS,  OR  HOLOTHURIANS. 

THE  Holothurioids  comprise  echinoderms  which  have 
the  body  long,  cylindrical,  somewhat  worm-like  in  gen- 
Fig.  482. 


Ho'.othurian,  or  "  Sea  Cucumber,"  Pcntactafrondosa,  North  Atlantic. 

eral  appearance,  with  a  row  of  appendages  around  the 
oral  opening,  and  without  a  calcareous  shell,  but  with  a 

*  Six,   according  to  those  who   regard    Sipunculoids  as  Echinoderms. 
Some  class  them  with  Worms.      Forbes  calls  them  Annelidous  Radiates. 


5oo 


RADIATES  :    ECHINODERMS. 


tough,  leathery  envelope,  capable  of  great  dilation  and 
contraction,  and  generally  containing  more  or  less  of  cal- 
careous particles.  There  are  at  least  four  families :  - 
Pentactidse,  with  the  locomotive  suckers  in  five  regular 
rows ;  Thyonidse,  with  suckers  scattered  over  the  whole 
body ;  Psolidse,  with  suckers  in  three  rows  on  an  oblong 
disk ;  and  Synaptidce,  destitute  of  suckers.  The  different 
species  vary  from  an  inch  to  a  foot  or  more  in  length. 

SUB-SECTION    II. 

THE  ORDER  OF   ECHINOIDS,   OR  SEA-URCHINS. 

THE  Order  of  Echinoids  contains  echinoderms  which 
have  a  more  or  less  spherical  or  discoidal  shell  composed 
of  definitely  formed  and  symmetrically  arranged  plates, 
which  are  firmly  bound  together,  and  which  bear  tubercles 
crowned  with  spines.  These  plates  are  so  arranged  as  to 
divide  the  shell  into  more  or  less  distinctly  marked  zones 
radiating  from  the  oral  opening.  In  every  alternate  zone, 
the  plates  are  perforated  for  the  passage  of  the  locomotive 
suckers  or  ambulacra,  and  are  called  ambulacral  plates ; 

Fig.  484. 
Fig.  483. 


Sea-Urchin,  Toxopneustes  drobackiensis,  Ag. 

Both  coasts  of  the  United  States,  at  the  Top  view  of  Sea-Urchin,  spines  re- 

North,  moved.      Shows  ambulacral  and 

interambulacral  plates. 

and  the  plates  of  the  other  zones  are  not  perforated,  and 
are  called  interambulacral  plates. 

Echinoids  may  be  divided  into  two  great  groups,— 
Regular  and  Irregular  Echinoids,  and  these,  according  to 
Desor's  Synopsis,  into  families  and  genera,  as  given  below. 


ECHINOIDS:   CIDARIDJB. 


501 


Regular  Echinoids  have  the  mouth  below,  vent  above, 
both  central,  and  the  ambulacra  in  five  pairs  continuous 
from  vent  to  mouth  ;  ovaries  five,  and  the  mouth  fur- 
nished with  a  complicated  dental  apparatus.  They  are 
from  an  inch  to  three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  and  dif- 
ferent species  have  spines  from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to 
three  or  four  inches  in  length. 

CIDARID^E,  OR  CIDARIS  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces echinoids  which  have  the  interambulacral  areas 
composed  of  two  rows  of  plates.  The  Genera  Cidaris, 
Leiocidaris,  Goniocidaris,  Diadema,  Savignya,  Astropyga, 
Echinocidaris,  Psammechinus,  Echinus,  Tripneustes,  Bole- 
tia,  Sphcerechinus,  Toxopneustes,  Heliocidaris,  Loxechinus, 
Echinometra,  Acroladia,  and  Podophora,  are  among  the 
principal  ones.  Cidaris,  Echinometra,  and  Tripneustes  are 
found  on  the  coast  of  Florida;  Echinocidaris,  coast  of 
South  Carolina  and  island  of  Naushon  ;  Toxocidari^pi  A. 
Agassiz,  San  Francisco  ;  Toxopneustes,  both  coasts  of  the 
United  States,  North ;  Loxechinus,  San  Francisco ;  and 
Psammechinus  or  Lytechinus,  South  Carolina  and  Florida. 

The  Irregular  Echinoids  have  the  mouth  below,  the 
vent  sometimes  below,  sometimes  at  one  side,  and  the  am- 
bulacra not  continuous.  Fig.  485. 

Family  has  the  ambulacral 
areas  simple,  and  a  masca- 
tory  apparatus.  Echino- 
neus  is  the  principal  ge- 
nus. 

CLYPEASTRID^E.  —  This 
Family  contains  those 
which  have  the  ambulacra 
petaloid,  and  peristome 
central.  The  Genera^//?- 

j  ..     .          ,  Echinarachnius  parma,  Gray.     Northeast 

MOUlima,    La-  coast  of  the  United  States. 


502 


RADIATES  .'    ECHINODERMS. 
Fig.  486. 


Mellita  quinquefora,  Ag.     Tropical  America. 

ganum,  Rtimphia,  Arach- 
noides,     Echinarachnius, 
Dendraster,      Lobophora, 
Mellita,  Encope,  Rotula, 
Echinodiscus,    and    Cly- 
peaster,  are  the  principal 
ones.    Clypeaster,  Encope, 
and  Mellita  are  found  on 
the    southeastern    coast 
of    the    United    States; 
Dendraster,  at  San  Fran- 
cisco ;     Echinarachnius, 
coast  of  New   England 
capepaimas.         and  northward. 
CASSIDULID^:.  —  This  Family  has  the  ambulacra  peta- 
loid,  no  jaws,  peristome  angular,  central  or  subcentral. 
Genera  :  Cassidulus,  PygorJiynchus,  Echinolampus,  etc. 

SPATANGID.E.  —  This  Family  contains  echinoids  which 
are  more  or  less  depressed,  heart-shaped,  with  the  ambu- 
lacra petaloid,  and  the  peristome  eccentric.  They  are 


ASTERIOIDS.  5O3 

known  as  Heart-Urchins.  The  Genera  Spatangus,  Bris- 
sus,  Ampkidotus,  and  others  belong  here.  Most  of  the 
Spatangidae  bury  themselves  in  mud  or  sand.  Brissus 
is  found  on  the  coast  of  Florida. 

SUB-SECTION   III. 

THE  ORDER  OF  ASTERIOIDS,   OR  STAR-FISHES. 

THIS  Order  comprises  echinoderms  which  are  more  or 
less  star-shaped,  the  disk  or  central  portion  gradually 
merging  into  the  rays,  beneath  which  the  locomotive 
suckers  extend  the  whole  length ;  and  the  calcareous 
skeleton  is  composed  of  movable  pieces,  so  that  these  ani- 
mals can  bend  themselves  in  any  direction.  There  is  al- 

Fig.  488. 


Star-Fish,  Asteracanthion.     Coast  of  New  England. 

most  every  possible  form,  from  those  which  have  the  arms 
long  and  graceful  to  those  in  which  the  arms  and  body 


504  RADIATES  I    ECH1NODERMS. 

are  merged  in  one ;  and  they  vary  in  size  from  an  inch  or 
two  to  a  foot  Or  more  in  diameter.  -Star-fishes  have  a 
wonderful  power  of  reproducing  lost  parts  ;  if  an  arm  be 
broken  off,  'another  soon  grows  in  its  place.  Even  after 
all  the  arms  but  one  have  been  destroyed,  a  star-fish  has 
lived,  and  new  arms  have  sprouted  out  in  the  places  of 
the  lost  ones.  They  are  common  on  almost  all  coasts. 

Miiller  and  Troschel  divide  the  Star-fishes  into  three 
groups.  The  first  contains  those  which  have  four  rows 
of  suckers,  as  Asteracantliion  including  Uraster ;  the  sec- 
ond, those  which  have  two  rows  of  suckers,  as  Echinasttr 
including  Asterias  and  Cribella,  Solaster,  Chcetaster,  Ophi- 
diastcr,  Dactylosaster,  Tamaria,  Cistina,  Scytaster,  Culcita, 
Astericus  including  Asterina  and  Palmipes,  Ptcrastcr,  Ore- 
aster,  Astrogonium,  Goniodiscus,  Stellaster,  Astcropsis,  and 
Archaster;  the  third,  those  which  have  two  rows  of  suck- 
ers, and  no  vent,  as  Astropecten,  sEnodiscus,  and  Luidia. 

SUB-SECTION  IV. 

THE   ORDER  OF   OPHIURIOIDS,   OR   OPHIURANS. 

THIS  Order  embraces  echinoderms  which  have  the  cen- 
tral disk  very  small  in  comparison  to  the  size  of  the  arms, 
Fig-  489-  and   circular  ;    and   the 

arms  start  off  abruptly 
from  its  circumference. 
Locomotion  is  effected 
by  means  of  spines. 

Miiller  and  Troschel 
divide  the  Ophiurans  in- 
to two  groups,  —  Ophi- 
urae  and  Euryalae. 

The  Ophiurae  are  char- 
acterized by  simple  arms, 
,  ophwphoiis.  and  contain  the  Genera 

Ophioderma  including  Ophiura,  Ophiocnemis,   OpJiiolcpis, 


OPHIURIOIDS   AND    CR1NOIDS.  505 

Ophiocoma,  Opkiarachna,  Ophiacantha,  Ophiopholis,  Ophio- 
mastix,  Ophiomyxa,  Ophioscolex,  and  Ophiothrix. 

The  Euryalae  are  characterized  by  branched  arms,  and 

Fig.  490. 


Astrophyton  Agassizit,  Stimpson.     Less  than  half  the  natural  size.     Northeast  coast  of 
North  America. 

comprise  the  Genera  Asteronyx,  Trichaster,  and  Astrophyton. 
Since  the  above  was  in  type,  we  have  seen  the  excel- 
lent Catalogue  of  "Ophiuridae  and  Astrophytidae "  by 
Theodore  Lyman,  in  which  the  list  of  genera  is  much 
greater  than  that  here  given,  and  from  which  we  learn 
that  more  than  a  dozen  genera  of  Ophiurans  are  found 
on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States. 


+    SUB-SECTION   V. 

THE   ORDER   OF   CRINOIDS. 

THE  Order  of  Crinoids  embraces  echinoderms  which 
are   characterized   by   the  great  preponderance   of  the 


506 


RADIATES  :    ECHINODERMS. 


ab-oral  region  over  the  oral, 
the  former  being  developed 
into  a  cup  or  calyx-like  pro- 
jection, and  composed  of  sol- 
id, immovable  plates.  With 
one  exception,  the  living  rep- 
resentatives bear  a  great 
resemblance  to  Star-Fishes 
and  Ophiurans  ;  but  the  fos- 
sil species,  which  are  exceed- 
ingly numerous,  and  literal- 
ly fill  the  rocks  in  many  re- 
gions, and  whose  beauty  and 
ornamentation  are  beyond 
description,  have  a  long, 
jointed  stem,  and  are  popu- 
larly known  as  Stone  Lilies. 
These  stemmed  crinoids,  so 
abundant  in  the  past,  have  but  a  single  representative  in 
the  present  seas,  —  the  Pentacrinus  caput-medusa  of  the 
West  Indies.  Comatula  has  a  stem  in  its  early  stages, 
thus  for  a  time  appearing  like  the  old  crinoids  ;  but  at 
length  it  becomes  detached,  and  spends  the  remainder  of 
its  life  as  a  free  crinoid. 


SECTION   II. 

THE    CLASS    OF   ACALEPHS,    OR  JELLY-FISHES. 

THE  Class  of  Acalephs  comprises  jelly-like  radiated 
animals,  with  a  central  cavity  hollowed  out  of  the  mass 
of  the  body,  — which  is  generally  built  of  four,  eight,  or 
twelve  spheromeres,  —  and  this  cavity  with  a  central  oral 
opening ;  and  instead  of  radiating  plates,  as  in  the  next 
order,  there  are  radiating  tubes,  which  pass  from  the  cen- 


ACALEPHS. 


tral  portion  and  unite  with  a  circular  tube  which  follows 
the  outline  of  the  periphery  of  the  animal.  The  external 
edges  of  the  central  or  oral  Fig.  492. 

opening  are  turned  outward, 
and  more  or  less  prolonged  in- 
to fringe-like  appendages.  Ten- 
tacular appendages  wanting,  or 
present  in  almost  every  de- 
gree of  development  both  as 
regards  number  and  extent. 
Jelly-Fishes,  in  their  most  com- 
mon forms,  are  known  as  Me- 
dusae, and  have  long  been  ob- 
jects of  great  interest  to  voy- 
agers and  residents  by  the  sea, 
as  well  as  to  the  most  learned 
naturalists.  Their  jelly-like 
bodies,  scarcely  denser  than 
the  water  in  which  they  move ; 
their  curious  and  beautiful 
forms,  and  often  beautiful  colors 
ture,  delighting  all  who  study  it 
and  graceful  as  those  of  the  butterfly  or  the  bird  of  the 
air ;  their  phosphorescence  by  night,  making  the  track  of 
the  vessel,  and  the  breakers  upon  the  shore,  glow  with 
light,  and  gaining  for  them  the  appellation  of  "  Lamps 
of  the  Sea" ;  and,  above  all,  their  wonderful  modes  of  re- 
production and  development,  —  conspire  to  excite  our  in- 
terest, our  wonder,  and,  as  we  study  them  carefully,  our 
admiration. 

In  treating  this  group,  we  follow  Agassiz,  in  his  "  Con- 
tributions to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States." 

Jelly-Fishes  embrace  three  orders,  —  Ctenophorae,  Dis- 
cophorae,  and  Hydroids,  ranking  in  the  order  named, 
Ctenophorae  being  highest. 


t 


Jelly-Fish,  P.  cyanella,  Per.  &  LeS. 

their  complicated  struc- 
their  movements,  varied 


508 


RADIATES  I   ACALEPHS. 


SUB-SECTION    I. 

THE   ORDER  OF  CTENOPHOR^,   OR  BEROID   MEDUSAE. 

THIS  Order  contains  more  or  less  spherical  or  ovate 
jelly-fishes,  which  have  the  body  built  of  eight  homologous 
segments  bearing  eight  rows  of  locomotive  appendages 
more  or  less  distinctly  indicated.  Agassiz  enumerates 
about  seventy  species,  which  he  distributes  among  four 
sub-orders,  twelve  families,  and  over  thirty  genera. 

CYDIPPID^E.  —  This  Family  embraces  Pieurobrachia  and 
allied  genera. 

The  Genus  Pieurobrachia  has  the  body  nearly  spherical 
or  slightly  elongated  and  compressed,  the  locomotive  ap- 
pendages extending  from  near 
the  margin  of  the  mouth,  in 
eight  rows,  towards  the  oppo- 
site centre. 

Pieurobrachia  rhododactyla, 
Ag.,  is  common  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  North  America, 
and  has  received  very  special 
attention  from  Agassiz,  who 
says,  that,  "when  active,  it 
hangs  out  a  pair  of  most  re- 
markable appendages, the  struc- 
ture and  length  and  contractil- 
ity of  which  are  equally  sur- 
prising, and  exceed  in  wonder- 
ful adaptation  all  I  have  ever 
known  among  animal  struc- 
tures. Two  apparently  simple, 
irregular,  and  unequal  threads 
hang  out  from  opposite  sides 
of  the  sphere.  Presently,  these 
Ag.  appendages  may  elongate,  and 


CTENOPHOR^E  I    BEROIDjE.  509 

equal  in  length  the  diameter  of  the  sphere,  or  surpass  it, 
and  increase  to  two,  three,  five,  ten,  and  twenty  times 
the  diameter  of  the  body,  and  more  and  more  ;  so  much 
so,  that  it  would  seem  as  if  these  threads  had  the  power 
of  endless  extension  and  development.  But,  as  they 
lengthen,  they  appear  more  complicated :  from  one  of 
their  sides  other  delicate  threads  shoot  out  like  fringes, 
forming  a  row  of  beards  like  those  of  the  most  elegant 
ostrich  feather,  and  each  of  these  threads  itself  elongates 
till  it  equals  in  .length  the  diameter  of  the  whole  body, 
and  bends  in  the  most  graceful  curves." 

BEROID.E.  —  This  Family  contains  Beroe,  Idyia,  and 
their  allies. 

The  Genus  Idyia  contains  /.  roseola,  Ag.,  of  the  coast 
of  New  England  and  northward.  This  species  attains 
the  length  of  three  or  four  inches  or  more,  and  is  of  a 
beautiful  rose-color.  It  sometimes  appears  in  such  num- 
bers during  the  summer  months  as  to  tinge  large  patches 
of  the  sea  with  a  delicate  rosy  hue.  It  is  very  voracious, 
and  feeds  chiefly  on  other  ctenophorae. 

SUB-SECTION  II. 

THE  ORDER  OF  DISCOPHORAE,   OR   MEDUSA   PROPER. 

THE  Discophorae  comprise  jelly-fishes  which  have  the 
form  of  a  hemispheric  disk  spreading  uniformly  in  all  di- 
rections. They  abound  in  all  seas,  and  the  species  are 
numerous.  Agassiz  recognizes  three  sub-orders,  fifteen 
families,  and  about  seventy  genera. 

The  Sub-Order  Rhizostomeae  includes  those  discophorae 
which  are  generally  regarded  as  destitute  of  the  so-called 
mouth,  and  which  absorb  their  food  through  innumerable 
tubes  traversing  the  arms,  and  reaching  the  digestive 
cavity  through  narrow  channels ;  and  they  are  wholly 
destitute  of  marginal  tentacles.  As  to  the  mouth,  how- 
ever, Agassiz  holds,  if  we  understand  him  rightly,  that 


5  IO  RADIATES  :    ACALEPHS. 

their  essential  structure,  in  this  respect,  is  the  same  as  that 
of  other  discophorae,  differing  only  in  degree. 

The  Sub-Order  Semaeostomae  comprises  discophorae 
which  have  the  so-called  mouth  plainly  represented, 
though  surrounded  by  more  or  less  extensive  appendages, 
and  marginal  tentacles  more  or  less  developed. 

AURELID.E,  OR  AURELIA  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  em- 
braces discophorae  which  are  characterized  by  the  even 
curve  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  disk,  while  the  lower 
surface  is  excavated  in  its  central  portion  by  four  large 
genital  pouches,  between  which  hang  four  stout  arms, 
closing  upon  one  another  in  the  centre,  so  as  to  form  a 
rectilinear  opening,  prolonged  in  the  undulating  curves 
or  folds  between  the  lower  margins  of  the  arms.  The 
margin  of  the  disk  has  small  tentacles,  except  where  the 
eight  eyes  occupy  slight  indentations. 

The  Genus  Aurelia  contains  the  common  "  Sun-Fish," 
A.  flamdula.  Per.  &  LeS.,  of  the  northeast  coast  of  North 
America.  It  attains  eight  or  ten  inches  or  more  in  di- 
ameter, and  lives  but  a  single  year.  When  first  seen  in 
the  spring,  it  is  hardly  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter ; 
and  when  the  sky  is  clear  and  the  sea  smooth,  it  floats 
in  immense  numbers  near  the  surface  of  the  water.  They 
grow  rapidly,  reaching  their  average  size  in  early  summer. 
As  they  increase  in  size,  they  separate  more  and  more, 
but  reassemble  towards  the  close  of  summer,  which  is 
the  spawning  season.  Later,  they  are  broken  into  frag- 
ments, and  destroyed  by  the  autumnal  winds ;  but  the 
planulae  —  as  the  newly-hatched  jelly-fishes  are  called  — 
soon  appear  moving  •  freely  about  by  means  of  vibratile 
cilia.  After  a  little  time,  each  becomes  attached  to  the 
rocks,  sea-weed,  or  shells,  and  is  then  known  as  Scyphos- 
toma,  Fig.  494.  Then  the  body  begins  to  be  divided  into 
rings  by  transverse  constrictions,  and  the  rings  or  seg- 
ments become  more  and  more  numerous  and  more  dis- 


DISCOPHOILE:  AURELHXE, 


tinct,  and  in  this  form  is  called  Strobila,  Fig.  495.  At 
length,  by  deeper  and  deeper  constriction,  the  segments 
become  more  and  more  isolated,  and  the  uppermost  seg- 
ment drops  off,  then  the  next  one,  and  so  on,  till  each 

Fig.  495.  Fig.  496. 


Fig.  494. 


Scyphostoma  QtA.flavi 

dula,  Per.  &  LeS. 

Magnified  about  seven 

diameters. 


Strobila  of  A.  flavidula, 
Per.  &  LeS.  Magnified 
about  seven  diameters. 

Fig.  497. 


Strobik  oiA.flavidula,  Per.  &  LeS. 
Magnified  fifteen  diameters. 


Aurelia  flavidula,  Per.  &  LeS.     Offspring  of  Figs.  494-496. 

segment  or  disk  has  separated  from  the  one  below  itself; 
and  the  base,  having  reproduced  tentacles,  remains  still 
alive.  Each  segment  or  disk,  as  it  separates,  turns  over, 
and  floats  away,  and  in  this  form  is  known  as  Ephyra. 


512  RADIATES:  ACALEPHS. 

Soon  each  epbyra  assumes  the  form  of  the  perfect  jelly- 
fish. Thus  a  single  scyphostoma,  the  product  of  a  single 
egg,  becomes  a  strobila,  which  at  length  divides  into  nu- 
merous parts,  each  of  which  becomes  a  perfect  jelly-fish. 

CYANEID.E. — This  Family  contains  Cyanea  and  its  allies. 

The  Genus  Cyanea  contains  C.  arctica.  Per.  &  LeS., 
which  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  of  all  jelly-fishes, 
attaining  a  diameter  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  with  ten- 
tacles which  extend  to  the  enormous  length  of  twenty  or 
thirty  feet.  The  color  of  the  disk  is  bright  purplish  red, 
the  margin  whitish  with  a  tinge  of  grayish  blue  ;  and  the 
tentacles  vary  from  orange  to  deep  purple.  Its  mode  of 
development  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  Aurelia. 
It  inhabits  the  northeast  coast  of  North  America. 

PELAGID/E.  —  This  Family  comprises  Pelagia,  and  allied 
genera.  In  the  mode  of  development,  they  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  two  preceding  families,  inasmuch  as  the 
young  hatched  from  the  egg  passes  directly  into  the 
ephyra  form.  P.  cyanella,  Per.  &  LeS.,  Fig.  492  about 
half  the  natural  size,  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Florida. 

SUB-SECTION   III. 

THE   ORDER   OF   HYDROID^,   OR   HYDROIDS. 

THIS  Order  includes  the  lowest  acalephs,  and  embraces, 
according  to  Agassiz,  two  more  or  less  distinct  forms,  one 
of  which,  though  having  the  structure  of  acalephs,  reminds 
us  of  polyps,  described  in  the  next  section,  and  the  other 
closely  resembling  medusae  proper ;  and  between  these 
there  is  every  possible  gradation.  All  the  so-called  hy- 
droid  polyps,  and  the  naked-eyed  medusae,  belong  to  this 
order,  which  is  divided  by  the  distinguished  author  just 
named  into  eight  sub-orders,  forty-six  families,  and  about 
one  hundred  and  thirty  genera.  Occurring,  as  they  do 
in  many  cases,  in  one  stage  of  their  existence  at  least,  as 
mere  discolored  lichen-like  patches  on  sea-weed,  stone,  or 


HYDROID.E:  SARSIM:.  513 

shell,  or  in  appearance  like  little  tufts  of  moss,  or  minia- 
ture shrubs,  the  careless  observer  might  well  mistake  the 
fact  of  their  animal  character.*  But,  thanks  to  learned, 
persevering,  and  patient  investigators,  we  know  much  of 
their  curious  and  wonderful  history.  We  now  know  that 
these  little  vegetable-like,  but  acalephian  forms  produce 
medusae  buds  which  expand  into  genuine  medusae,  and 
in  some  kinds  sever  their  connection,  and  float  away  and 
lead  an  independent  life,  and  in  other  kinds  remain  at- 
tached to  the  hydroid  stalk,  and  in  both  cases  produce 
eggs  which  serve  to  establish  new  communities  of  hy- 
droids,  like  the  ones  from  which  they  themselves  were 
developed.  Thus  the  hydroid  communities,  and  certain 
medusae,  are  alternate  generations  of  the  same  beings. 

The  Sub-Order  Tubulariae  comprises  hydroid  acalephs 
in  which  the  medusa  is  free  or  persistent,  deep  bell-shaped, 
the  hydra  pedunculated,  and  the  head  club-shaped. 

SARSID.E.  —  This  Family,  as  restricted  by  Agassiz,  em- 
braces those  in  which  the  medusae  are  deep  bell-shaped, 
and  have  four  long  tentacles,  and  a  long  simple  proboscis 
upon  which  the  eggs  are  developed. 

The  Genus  Coryne,  formerly  Sarsia,  is  a  well-known 
representative  of  this  family.  Fig.  501  shows  thevform 
of  one  species  of  Coryne  in  the  adult  state.  Nothing  can 
excel  the  delicacy  of  the  structure  of  these  animals.  Soft 
as  jelly,  transparent  as  the  dew-drop,  almost  as  perish- 

*  Of  the  sub-orders  alluded  to  above,  one  is  Tabu-  Jig.  498. 

late,  whose  representatives  produce  solid  parts  known 
as  Coral,  and  formerly  referred  to  the  next  class,  which 
is  the  principal  coral-producing  group.  The  Genera 
Millepora,  Seriatopora,  Favorites,  Heliopora,  and  Fo- 
ci'ilopora  are  now  included  in  this  sub-order.  In  the 
corals  referred  to  Tabulate,  the  cells  have  a  horizontal 
partition  or  floor  extending  from  wall  to  wall ;  and 

these  floors  are  formed  one  above  another  as  the  animal 

Acalephian  Coral, 
grows  ;  and  the  radiating  partitions  never  extend  verti-    pociuop0ra.c<*spitosat 

cally  through  the  successive  floors.  Dana. 

22*  GG 


5*4 


RADIATES  :    ACALEPHS. 


able  as  a  bubble,  yet  they  perform  varied  and  rapid  move- 
ments, contract  and  expand  their  tentacles,  catch  and  vo- 


Fig.  499. 


Fig.  501. 


C.  mtrabilis,  Ag.     Cluster  of  Hydrae 
growing  on  sea-weed. 

Fig.  500. 


Coryne  mirabilis,  Ag.     Adult. 
Single  individual  of  Fig.  499  enlarged,  Massachusetts  Bay. 

showing  a,  b  just  ready  to  become  free 
medusae,  Fig.  501 ;  c\  young  bud. 

raciously  devour  medusas  of  their  own  kind  or  those  of 
other  species,  and  other  marine  animals.  They  may  be 
seen  in  the  spring,  and  in  great  numbers ;  about  the 
middle  of  summer  they  lay  their  eggs  and  perish.  But 
these  eggs,  as  already  noticed,  do  not  hatch  medusae,  like 
the  parents ;  but  each  hatches  a  little  hydroid,  which  is  first 
free,  then  afterwards  becomes  attached  to  a  shell,  or  sea- 
weed, or  stone,  and  from  this  hydroid  other  hydroids  bud 


HYDROID.E  :   TUBULARIDjE. 


515 


and  branch  until  a  community  of  hydroids  resembling  a 
tuft  of  moss  has  grown  up,  Fig.  499.  From  these  hy- 
droids, in  turn,  bud  the  free  medusae,  like  Fig.  501. 

TUBULARID^E.  —  This  Family,  as 
restricted  by  Agassiz,  embraces  on- 
ly hydroids  whose  head  is  furnished 
with  a  wreath  of  simple  coronal  ten-  ct 
tacles,  and  a  proboscis  with  simple 
tentacles  around  the  mouth ;  and 
which  produce  either  persistent  or 
free  medusae,  more  or  less  one-sided, 
budding  from  the  floor  between  the 
coronal  tentacles  and  the  proboscis. 
The  Genera  Tubularia,  Thamnocni- 
dia,  and  Parypha  have  the  medusae 
persistent ;  Hybocodon  free. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Sertulariae  em- 
braces those  in  which  the  hydra  is 
always  pedunculated  and  attached, 
and  protected  by  a  horny  sheath 
forming  a  cup  around  the  head ;  and 
the  medusae  are  either  free  or  persist-  Tubularia  Couthouy^  Ag 
ent,  generally  flat,  but  in  some  cases  Massachusetts  Bay. 

tn,  medusae ;    ct,  coronal  ten- 
tacles ;  />,  proboscis. 


504- 


Campanularian,  Obelia  commissuralis,  McCr. 
The  hydro-medusae  in  the  cups  drop  out  and  be- 
come free  medusae,  similar  to  Fig.  504.  Atlantic 
coast  of  North  America. 


Campanularian, 

Tiaropsis  diademata,  Ag. 

Northeast  coast  of  North  America. 


bell-shaped,  and  furnished  with  numerous  tentacles.  This 


5i6 


RADIATES:  ACALEPHS. 


group  includes  the  hydroids  known  as  Sertularians  and 

Campanularians. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Siphonophorse  comprises  hydroid 

acalephs  which  exist  as  free  moving  communities,  each 

community  being  made  up  of  individuals   of  different 

kinds,  yet  all  conspiring  to 
give  the  appearance  of  one 
complicated  animal. 

The  Genus  Physalia  is  a 
prominent  one.  It  contains 
the  Portuguese  Man-of-War, 
P.  arethusa,  Til.,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  and  best 
known  of  this  group.  It  con- 
sists of  a  pear-shaped  and  ele- 
gantly crested  air-sac,  floating 
lightly  upon  the  surface  of 
the  water,  and  giving  off  from 
its  under  surface  numerous 
long  and  varied  appendages. 
These  appendages  are  the 
different  members  of  the  com- 
munity, and  perform  differ- 
ent functions,  some  of  them 
eating  for  the  whole,  others 
producing  medusa  buds,  and 
others  being  the  locomotive 
members,  —  the  latter  having 
tentacles  that  stretch  out  be- 

Portuguese  Man-of-War,  P*a2tA«sa,  Til.    hind    the  floating  Community 
Southern  coast  of  the  United  States.         even    to    tne    length    of    thirty 

feet.  The  air-sac  is  three  or  four  inches  long,  or  more. 
On  the  tentacles  of  both  Acalephs  and  Polyps  there  are 
numerous  microscopic  lasso-cells  —  Cnidae  —  each  con- 
taining a  spirally  coiled  lasso  which  can  be  darted  forth 
at  will,  and  which  aids  in  securing  prey. 


POLYPS. 

SECTION    III. 

THE  CLASS  OF  POLYPI,  OR  POLYPS. 

THE  Class  of  Polyps  embraces  radiates  which  have  a 
tubular  or  sack-like  body,  with  a  circular  summit  or  disk, 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  opening  popularly  called  the 
mouth,  surrounded  by  one  or  more  rows  of  tentacles  ;  and 
which  have  the  interior  of  the  body,  except  the  main 
central  cavity,  divided  into  vertical  chambers  by  vertical 
plates  or  partitions,  extending  from  the  inner  wall  to  the 
main  cavity,  for  the  whole  height  of  the  body.  The  mouth 
leads  directly  into  an  interior  central  sac,  which  is  the 
stomach,  and  which  opens  at  the  bottom  into  the  main 
cavity.  From  the  main  cavity  there  is  free  communica- 
tion with  all  the  radiating  chambers,  and  from  the  latter 
free  communication  through  the  hollow  tentacles  which 
crown  the  summit.  The  chambers  also  communicate  with 
each  other  by  circular  openings  near  the  top.  Polyps 
are  all  marine,  and,  according  to  the  kinds,  are  free  or 
attached,  single  or  associated,  often  in  numbers  that  defy 
computation.  They  increase  by  means  of  eggs,  by  budding 
in  a  manner  analogous  to  that  Fig.  506. 

of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  by  di- 
vision and  subdivision  ;  so  that 
the  largest  communities  arise 
from  a  single  parent.  Polyps 
readily  reproduce  a  lost  part. 
Even  if  cut  in  pieces,  each 
considerable  fragment  will,  in 
some  cases,  become  a  new  ani- 
mal. With  few  exceptions, 
Polyps  do  not  flourish  at  depths 
greater  than  twenty  or  thirty  Polro  B**O&*  stella>  Verri11- 
fathoms,  and  they  abound  in  comparatively  shallow  wa- 


5  1 8  RADIATES  I    POLYPS. 

ters.  They  vary  in  size  from  microscopic  forms  to  sev- 
eral inches,  and  even  a  foot  or  more,  in  diameter.  Some 
are  wholly  soft,  others  secrete  more  or  less  solid  parts. 
In  this  respect  there  is  every  grade,  from  those  wholly 
fleshy  to  those  which  secrete  a  solid  framework.  This 
framework  is  called  Coral*  The  too  common  notion 
that  coral  is  built  by  an  insect,  or  that  the  coral  ani- 
mals build  coral  at  will,  as  the  bee  builds  comb,  or  as 
workmen  masonry,  is  wholly  erroneous.  Coral  is  sim- 
ply the  framework  or  skeleton,  or  aggregate  skeletons, 
of  polyps,  —  or,  in  some  cases,  as  we  have  seen,  of  aca- 
lephs,  —  and  is  a  necessary  result  of  their  existence,  and 
is  entirely  independent  of  the  volition  of  the  animals 
themselves.  In  fact,  polyps  form  coral  in  a  manner 
not  different  in  kind  from  that  in  which  the  higher  ani- 
mals form  bones  ;  and  the  coral  is  wholly  inside  the  pol- 
yps, and  is  in  no  sense  a  house,  as  is  too  commonly  sup- 
posed, in  which  the  latter  live  ;  and  it  is  only  when  the 
polyps  die,  wither,  and  disappear  that  we  see  the  solid 
coral  itself.  From  their  resemblance  to  plants,  the  ani- 
mals of  this  class  were  regarded  by  the  early  naturalists 
as  vegetable  forms  ;  and  later  they  have  been  regarded 
as  partaking  of  the  nature  of  both  plants  and  animals ; 
but  now  their  strictly  animal  character  is  established  be- 
yond any  question.  Still,  they  are  often  called  Zoophytes, 
as  well  as  Polyps.  The  forms  and  hues  exhibited  by 
them  are  almost  endless.  Some  parts  of  the  tropical 
seas,  where  polyps  especially  flourish,  rival  in  graceful 
and  varied  forms,  and  in  beauty  and  splendor  of  colors, 
the  most  beautiful  flower-gardens  of  the  land.  There  is 
scarcely  a  form  of  vegetation,  either  trunk  or  branch,  leaf 
or  flower,  fern,  moss,  lichen,  or  fungus,  that  is  not  imi- 
tated with  striking  exactness  by  these  wonderful  animals 
of  the  sea. 

*  Corallum  is  the  term  used  by  Dana  in  his  most  excellent  works  on 
Zoophytes. 


ALCYONARIA:  RENILLID^.  519 

According  to  Professor  Verrill,  Polyps  embrace  three 
orders,  —  Alcyonaria,  Actinaria,  and  Madreporaria. 


SUB-SECTION   I. 

THE  ORDER  OF  ALCYONARIA. 

This  Order  contains  polyps  which  have  well-developed 
actinal,  mural,  and  abactinal  regions ;  eight  long,  pin- 
nately-lobed  tentacles  around  a  narrow  disk  ;  and  which 
are  compound  by  budding.  It  comprises  three  sub-orders, 
—  Pennatulacea,  Gorgonacea,  and  Alcyonacea. 

The  Sub-Order  Pennatulacea,  or  Sea-Pens,  includes 
polyps  which  form  free,  moving  communities,  and  con- 
tains four  families,  —  Pennatulidae,  Pavonaridae,  Vere- 
tillidae,  and  Renillidae. 

RENILLID^E.  —  This  Family  contains  polyps  which  are 
arranged  symmetrically  on  the  upper  surface  of  a  more 

Fig.  507- 


Fig.  508. 


R.  Dance,  Verrill. 
Single  polyp  enlarged 


Renilla,  7?.  Dana,  Verrill. 

or  less  flattened  disk,  to  the  lower  surface  of  which  there 
is  attached  a  hollow  locomotive  organ  in  the  form  of  a 
peduncle.     The  Genus  Renilla  is  the  principal  one. 
R.  reniformis,  Cuv.,  is  found  on  the  coast  of  North  and 


52O 


RADIATES  :    POLYPS. 


South  Carolina  and  Georgia ;  R.  Danes,  Verrill,  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  South  America  ;  and  R.  peltata,  Verrill, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi. 

The   Sub-Order  Gorgonacea  embraces  polyps  which 
are  cylindrical,  short,  connected  laterally,  and  which  se- 
crete  a   solid  central  axis.      It  contains        Fig.  509. 
seven  families,  —  Gorgonidae,  Plexauridae, 
Primnoidae,  Gorgonellidae,  Isidae,  Coralli- 
dae,  and  Briaridae.     The  forms  are  exceed- 
ingly varied,  and  often  extremely  delicate 
and  beautiful.     They  abound  in  tropical 
seas  ;  some  species  are  found  in  temperate 
zones.     Fig.  509  belongs  to  Gorgonellidae. 


Fig.  510. 


Fig.  5 


Red  Coral,  C.  rttbrttm,  Lamk. 
Single  polyp  enlarged. 


Rhipidogorgia  flabelhun,  Val. 
Portion  of  a  large  frond. 


Vernicella  gemmacea,  Val. 


Fig.  513- 


Red  Coral,  Corallium 
rubrum,  Lamarck. 


Primnoa  myura, 
M.-Edw. 


Organ-pipe  Coral,   Tubi flora 
syringa,  Dana. 


ALCYONARIA:  GORGONIOE:.  521 

,  OR  SEA-FAN  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  com- 
prises those  which  are  usually  much  branched,  and  have 
a  tendency  to  spread  in  a  plane,  forming  a  flattened  or 
fan-shaped,  and  often  reticulated  frond ;  axis  horn-like. 
Fig.  511. 

The  Genus  Gorgonia  has  the  corallum  much  branched, 
the  branchlets  slender,  and  the  cells  prominent  and  ar- 
ranged in  two  or  more  rows  on  the  edges  of  the  branches. 
G.  kumilis,  Dana,  is  found  on  the  coast  of  South  Caro- 
lina attached  to  stones  and  shells,  and  is  four  or  five  inches 
high  ;  color  reddish  brown. 

The  Genus  Leptogorgia  has  the  corallum  branching, 
the  branches  slender,  and  with  a  space  on  each  side 
destitute  of  cells. 

L.  virgnlata,  Milne-Edw.,  is  slender,  fasciculate,  and 
the  color  variable,  but  frequently  lemon  or  reddish  pur- 
ple. It  is  abundant  a  few  feet  below  low-water  mark, 
from  North  Carolina  to  Florida. 

L.  tennis,  Verrill,  of  Long  Island  Sound,  is  closely  al- 
lied to  the  preceding. 

PLEXAURID^:.  —  This  Family  has  the  corallum  branch- 
ing, arborescent,  with  a  horn-like  axis,  often  calcareous 
at  the  base,  and  the  cells  arranged  equally  on  all  sides  of 
the  branches. 

The  Genus  Muricea  has  the  axis  horn-like  in  the  branch- 
es, often  very  solid  at  the  base ;  cells  prominent,  spiculose. 
M.  pendula,  Verrill,  of  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  has 
the  trunk  large,  erect,  and  giving  off,  pinnately,  numerous 
irregular  branches,  many  of  which  are  also  irregularly 
pinnate.  It  is  about  two  feet  high,  and  the  trunk  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

PRIMNOID.E. —  This  Family  is  represented  on  the  coast 
of  the  United  States  by  the  Genus  Primnoa,  which  con- 
tains P.  Reseda,  Verrill,  found  at  St.  George's  Bank  and 
in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  axis  is  calcareous,  and  the 
cells  bell-shaped.  Fig.  513  shows  P.  mytira,  M.-Edw. 


522  RADIATES:  POLYPS. 

CORALLID^:.  —  This  Family  includes  the  Red  Coral  of 
commerce,  Corallium  rubrum,  Lamarck,  which  has  the 
axis  calcareous,  and  very  hard.  Figs.  510  and  512  rep- 
resent it  alive.  It  lives  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Alcyonacea  comprises  polyps  which 
are  turbinate  at  the  base,  and  which  are  found  encrusting 
foreign  bodies.  It  embraces  four  families,  —  Alcyonidae, 
Xenidae,  Cornularidse,  and  Tubiporidae. 

ALCYONID.E.  —  This  Family  contains  those  in  which 
the  polyps  are  united,  forming  lobed  or  arborescent  clus- 
ters of  fleshy  or  coriaceous  texture,  filled  with  calcareous 
particles.  The  Genus  Alcyonium  is  the  principal  one. 

A.  carneum,  Ag.,  is  found  from  Cape  Cod  northward, 
and  is  attached  to  shells  and  stones  in  from  eight  to  twenty 
fathoms  of  water  ;  usually  delicate  flesh-color. 

TuBiPORiDuE.  —  This  Family  contains  those  which  have 
the  coral  tubular,  calcareous  or  semi-calcareous,  and  the 
tubes  not  striate  within  ;  color  red.  Fig.  5 14. 

SUB-SECTION    II. 

THE  ORDER   OF  ACTINARIA. 

This  Order  embraces  polyps  which  have  a  well-devel- 
oped abactinal  region,  conical  or  cylindrical  tentacles 
around  the  mouth,  and  the  ambulacral  spaces  always 
open.  It  divides  into  three  sub-orders, — Actinacea,  An- 
tipathacea,  and  Zoanthacea. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Actinacea  comprises  those  which 
are  free,  capable  of  locomotion,  and  which  have  from  ten 
to  hundreds  of  tentacles,  and  the  mouth  with  special  lobes 
or  folds.  Most  are  simple,  a  few  are  compound,  and  a 
few  secrete  from  the  base  a  horn-like  deposit  There  are 
five  families,  —  Actinidae,  Thalassianthidae,  Minyidae,  Ily- 
anthidae,  and  Cerianthidae. 

ACTINID^E,  OR  SEA-ANEMONE  FAMILY.  —  This  Family 
contains  polyps  which  are  more  or  less  cylindrical,  rising 


ACTINARIA:  ACTINIM:. 


523 


from  a  broadly  expanded  disk  used  in  locomotion ;  ten- 
tacles simple  and  in  several  rows  near  the  margin. 

Figs-  5i5>  516,  517. 


Sea- Anemone,  M.  marginatum,  Milne-Edw.     Expanded,  closed,  and  just  opening. 

The  Genus  Bunodes  has  the  column  elongated,  sub- 
cylindrical  in  expansion,  walls  firm,  with  numerous  prom- 
inent papillae  arranged  in  vertical  lines  corresponding  to 
the  chambers  within  ;  tentacles  large,  not  numerous. 

B.  stella,  Verrill,  of  the  coast  of  Maine  and  northward, 
is  about  two  inches  high  in  the  largest  specimens,  and 
pale  olive-green  ;  sometimes  flesh-color.  Fig.  506.  It  is 
found  among  rocks. 

B.  cavemata,  Verrill,  of  the  coast  of  South  Carolina,  is 
about  one  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter. 

The  Genus  Rhodactinia  has  the  column  low,  shorter 
than  broad,  the  mouth  large  and  often  everted,  and  the 
tentacles  large  with  distinct  openings  at  the  ends. 

R.  Davisii,  Ag.,  is  two  inches  or  more  in  diameter,  and 
is  found  from  Nantucket  Shoals  northward. 

The  Genus  Aulactinia  has  the  base  adherent,  column 
elongated,  and  the  mouth  with  a  fold  at  each  angle,  one 
of  which  is  much  larger  than  the  others.  Below  each 
tentacle  there  is  a  three-lobed  appendage. 


524  RADIATES  :    POLYPS. 

A.  capitata,  Ag.,  of  the  coast  of  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina, is  six  inches  high  in  some  cases  ;  lives  in  the  mud. 

The  Genus  Metridium  has  the  column  very  contractile 
and  changeable  in  form  ;  often  much  elongated. 

The  "  Sea-Anemone/'  or  Fringed  Actinia,  M.  margina- 
tum,  Milne-Edw.,  is  the  most  common  of  all  the  polyps 
on  the  northeast  coast  of  North  America.  The  larger 
specimens  are  about  four  inches  high,  and  three  inches 
across  the  disk,  in  expansion.  Figs.  515-517. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Antipathacea  comprises  polyps  which 
have  from  six  to  twenty-four  simple  tentacles,  are  con- 
nected, and  secrete  a  solid  axis.  It  contains  two  fam- 
ilies, —  Antipathidae  and  Gerardidae. 

The  Sub-Order  Zoanthacea  contains  compound,  fixed 
polyps,  which  have  the  tentacles  simple,  short,  and  at  the 
edge  of  the  disk.  Families :  Zoanthidae  and  Bergidae. 

SUB-SECTION    III. 

THE  ORDER   OF   MADREPORARIA. 

THIS  Order  embraces  polyps  which  are  simple  or  com- 
pound, with  a  broadly  expanded  form,  simple  conical  ten- 
tacles, and  whose  dermal  tissues  and  usually  the  radiating 
lamellae  deposit  solid  coral.  They  abound  in  the  warm 
seas,  to  which  they  are  mainly  confined.  There  are  four 
sub-orders,  —  Madreporacea,  Astraeacea,  Fungacea,  and 
Stauracea. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Madreporacea  contains  those  which 
have  the  tentacles  in  definite  numbers,  twelve  or  more, 
well  developed,  and  encircling  the  narrow  disk.  The  coral 
is  porous,  dermal,  and  septal.  The  polyps  are  mainly 
compound  by  budding,  and  the  growth  chiefly  vertical. 
There  are  four  families, — Eupsammidae,  Figs.  523,  524, 
and  526,  Gemmiporidae,  Poritidae,  and  Madreporidae. 

PORITID^,  OR  PORITES  FAMILY.  —  This  Family  is  char- 
acterized by  shallow  cells,  often  hardly  traceable  within 
the  coral. 


MADREPORARIA. 
Fig.  518. 


525 


Madrepore,  Madrepora  aspera,  Dana.     Right-hand  branches  alive. 
Fig.  519- 


Fig.  520. 


Fig.  521. 


Parties  flexuosa,  Dana. 


Fig.  522. 


M&andrina  gracilis,  Dana. 
Cladocora  flexuosa,  Ehr.        Small  piece  of  a  large  mass. 

Fig.  523- 


Merulina,  speciosa,  Dana.          Astroides  calycularis,  Milne-Edw.     Coral  Polyps  in 

various  stages  of  expansion. 


526  RADIATES:  POLYPS. 

Fig.  526. 
Fig.  524.  Fig.  525. 


Aftroictes  calycularts,  Milne-Edw.          Oculina  horrescens,     Ccenopsammia  nigrescens, 
Coral  of  Fig.  523.  Dana.  Milne-Edw. 

The  Genus  Porites  has  the  coral  massive  or  branch- 
ing, and  the  cells  not  over  a  line  in  diameter ;  polyps 
with  twelve  short  tentacles.  Fig.  519.  The  massive  spe- 
cimens are  sometimes  fifteen  feet  in  diameter. 

MADREPORID.E,  OR  MADREPORE  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily contains  polyps  which  are  not  coral-producing  at  the 
base,  and  hence  the  cells  of  the  corallum  are  very  deep, 
and  not  crossed  by  septa  within.  The  species  are  very 
numerous,  and  the  forms  extensively  varied.  Fig.  518. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Astraeacea  contains  polyps  which  are 
mostly  compound  by  budding  or  fissiparity,  with  well- 
developed  tentacles  in  multiples  of  six.  It  contains  Litho- 
phyllidae,  Maeandrinidas,  Eusmillidae,  Caryophyllidae,  Sty- 
linidae,  Astraeidae,  Oculinidae,  and  Stylophoridae. 

MJEANDRINID.E,  OR  BRAIN-CORAL  FAMILY.  —  This  Fam- 
ily is  well  represented  by  the  Genus  Maandrina,  which 
has  the  disks  trench-like,  sinuous,  and  the  tentacles  form- 
ing a  series  along  either  margin.  The  form  is  generally 
hemispherical,  and  from  six  inches  to  twelve  feet  in  di- 
ameter. Fig.  521. 

CARYOPHYLLID^:.  —  This  Family  has  the  cells  of  the 
coral  with  margin  thin,  and  the  coral  within  not  trans- 
versely septate.  Fig.  520. 


MADREPORARIA  I    OCULINIDvE. 


527 


A  streea  pallida,  Dana. 
Portion  of  a  large  dome,  alive 


,  OR  STAR-CORAL  FAMILY. — This  Family 
has  the   coralla  with  concave  Fig.  527. 

radiate  cells ;  septa  in  aggre- 
gate species  not  continuous 
from  one  centre  to  another,  but 
generally  interrupted  half-way. 
The  prevailing  forms  are  hemi- 
spherical or  dome-shaped,  and 
some  of  the  large  domes  of  the 
Astraeas  are  even  twenty  feet  in 
diameter.  The  Genus  Astrcza 
of  Lamarck  is  the  principal  one. 
The  polyps  are  often  an  inch 
in  diameter. 

The  Genus  Astrangia  is  rep- 
resented on  the  coast  of  North  and  South  Carolina  by  A. 
astrceifonnis,  M.-Edw.  &  Haime ;  and  in  Long  Island 
Sound  by  A.  Dance,  Ag.  The  latter  is  found  incru sting 
rocks  from  just  below  low-water  mark  to  ten  fathoms.  It 
thrives  well  in  the  aquarium,  eating  mollusks  with  avidity. 

OCULINID.E.  —  This  Family  contains  the  Genus  Ocu- 
lina,  which  has  the  corallum,  while  young,  spreading  lat- 
erally by  basal  budding,  and  forming  an  incrusting  base 
from  which  branches  arise  in  tufts  or  arborescent  forms ; 
cells  rather  deep,  and  edges  of  the  septa  entire.  Fig.  525. 

O.  arbuscula,  Ag.,  occurs  off  Charleston,  South  Carolina 

The  Sub-Order  of  Fungacea  contains  those  in  which 
the  polyps  are  simple,  or  compound  by  marginal  or  disk 
budding  ;  tentacles  nu-  Fig.  528. 

merous'in  multiples  of 
six,  usually  short,  lobe- 
like,   and   scattered  on 
the  actinal  surface ;  and 
the  coral  broad  and  low,        *****-  S0™  sPedes  a  foot  in  diameter' 
and  not  transversely  septate.     There  are  four  families, — 
Cycloclitidae,  Lophoseridae,  Fungidae,  and  Merulinidae. 


528  RADIATES:  POLYPS. 

The  Sub-Order  of  Stauracea  has  the  coral  simple  or 
compound  by  budding,  and  the  septa  apparently  in  multi- 
ples of  four.  All  the  species  are  fossil.  It  contains  Stau- 
ridae,  Cyathophyllidae,  Cyathoxonidae,  and  Cystiphyllidae. 

Wherever  circumstances  have  favored  their  growth, 
Coral  Reefs  and  Islands  abound  in  all  the  hot  regions. 
When  a  reef  is  near  the  shore,  it  is  called  a  Fringing 
Reef;  when  at  a  distance,  a  Barrier  Reef;  and  when  it 
surrounds  a  body  of  water,  an  Atoll  or  Coral  Island. 
The  body  of  water  thus  surrounded  is  called  a  Lagoon. 
Coral  Reefs  are  in  all  stages  of  formation,  from  those 
which  have  just  begun  to  form  to  those  which  have  grown 
to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and,  having  received  the  de- 
bris thrown  upon  them  by  the  waves,  have  become  dry 
land,*  and  even  the  home  of  man.  There  are  scores  of 
islands  in  the  Pacific  which  are  thus  made  up  of  the  skele- 
tons of  coral  polyps  ;  and  the  islands  which  skirt  the  coast 
of  Florida  —  the  Keys  —  are  a  reef  which  has  reached 
and  risen  above  the  surface  here  and  there.  According 
to  Agassiz,  a  large  part  of  Florida  itself  is  composed  of 
old  coral  reefs.  There  are  reefs  in  the  Pacific  which  are 
several  hundred  miles  long,  and  one  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  Australia  is  a  thousand  miles  in  length.  The 
reef-forming  corals  are  mainly  Astraeas,  Mseandrinas,  Po- 
rites,  and  Madrepores.  The  frailer  corals,  those  of  the 
Order  Alcyonaria,  such  as  the  Gorgonias  and  their  allies, 
adorn  the  reef  as  it  approaches  the .  surface  of  the  water, 
but  contribute  little  to  its  growth.  Only  an  inch  or  less 
of  the  surface  of  a  growing  coral  mass  is  alive,  —  death 
going  on  below,  growth  above. 

The  reef  corals  are  essentially  of  the  same  composition 
as  limestone  or  marble,  being  composed  of  ninety  to 
ninety-six  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime  ;  the  other  parts 
are  organic  matter,  phosphates,  fluorides,  magnesia,  silica, 
and  oxide  of  iron. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION   OF   ANIMALS. 

THE  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals  furnishes 
one  of  the  most  important  and  most  interesting  depart- 
ments of  study  in  zoology,  and  one  which  is  receiving 
more  and  more  attention  from  the  ablest  naturalists. 
The  limits  of  this  book  allow,  and  our  present  purpose 
requires,  only  the  most  general  statement  of  the  facts  and 
principles  of  the  subject. 

It  is  in  the  torrid  zone  that  animal  life  appears  in  the 
most  numerous  and  varied  forms,  and  the  species  of  ani- 
mals diminish  in  number  and  brilliancy  of  color  as  we  go 
towards  the  poles. 

Again,  each  climatic  zone  of  the  earth's  surface,  each 
zone  of  altitude,  each  hemisphere,  each  grand  division  of 
the  earth,  has  its  own  peculiar  fauna.  Nay,  each  of  the 
different  parts  of  every  country  generally  has  animals  pe- 
culiar to  itself.  The  same  principles  obtain  in  the  seas 
as  on  the  land.  Each  ocean  and  sea,  each  gulf  and  bay, 
each  zone  of  depth,  —  so  far  as  life  obtains,  —  has  its  own 
peculiar  animal  forms. 

A  few  facts  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  above  principles. 
The  White  Bear,  the  Walrus,  the  Seal,  the  Whale,  the 
Narwhal,  the  Auk,  and  the  Jaegar  have  their  true  home 
in  or  near  the  Arctic  regions.  The  Bats  and  Moles ; 
the  Bears,  the  Wolves,  the  Foxes,  the  Lynxes,  the  Mar- 
tens, and  the  Weasels ;  the  Squirrels,  the  Beavers,  the 
Woodchucks,  the  Rabbits,  and  the  Porcupines ;  the  Wild 
23  HH 


53O         GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF    ANIMALS. 

Boar,  and  the  Ass ;  the  various  kinds  of  Deer,  the  Sheep, 
the  Goats,  and  Oxen ;  the  Birds  of  Prey,  the  Perching 
and  Singing  Birds,  the  Pigeons,  the  Grouse,  the  Waders, 
and  the  Swimming  Birds ;  the  Fishes  and  Reptiles ;  the 
Insects  and  the  shells,  and  other  and  lower  forms  of  life 
of  the  North  Temperate  zone,  —  are  unknown  in  all 
the  Arctic  regions.  Not  only  so,  but  the  animals  which 
bear  these  names  are  not  of  the  same  species  in  North 
America  that  they  are  in  Europe  or  Asia.  The  Grizzly 
Bear  is  confined  to  Western  North  America  ;  the  Brown 
Bear,  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere. 
The  American  Sable,  Fisher,  and  Weasel  inhabit  Northern 
North  America ;  the  Russian  Sable  and  true  Ermine  in- 
habit Siberia,  and  the  Beach  Marten  is  found  in  Europe. 
A  species  of  Reindeer  inhabits  Lapland,  but  in  Northern 
North  America  are  two  species  of  Reindeer,  both  of  which 
are  different  from  the  European  one.  The  Moose  of 
Maine  and  Canada  closely  resembles  the  Elk  of  Europe, 
but  is  not  identical  with  it ;  the  Stag  of  Europe  and  the 
American  Deer  are  two  species ;  and  the  noble  Wapiti, 
with  antlers  six  feet  in  length,  and  the  curious  Musk- 
Ox  and  Bison,  belong  exclusively  to  North  America; 
though  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania  the  latter  has  an  ana- 
logue in  the  European  Buffalo.  The  Golden  Eagle  and 
Peregrine  Falcon  may  be  identical  in  the  two  hemi- 
spheres ;  but  the  White-headed  Eagle,  and  the  Great  Vul- 
ture of  California,  are  never  found  outside  of  North  Amer- 
ica, and  the  Lammergeyer  never  quits  the  limits  of  Europe. 
The  European  may  justly  boast  of  the  sweet  singing  of 
the  Nightingale ;  but  the  indescribable  and  ravishing  notes 
of  the  Wood  Thrush  and  of  the  Hermit  Thrush  are  only 
heard  in  the  deep  groves  of  North  America.  The  Box- 
Turtles,  the  Wood-Tortoise,  the  Painted  Turtle,  the  curi- 
ous Trionyx,  the  Snapper,  and  all  the  numerous  species 
of  Turtle  of  North  America,  are  represented  in  Europe  by 
only  one  species,  the  Testudo  grceca  of  Linnaeus. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION    OF   ANIMALS.         531 

The  tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions  of  the  earth  are 
the  home  of  the  Monkeys ;  of  the  noble  carnivorous  ani- 
mals, like  the  Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard,  and  the  like ;  of  the 
gigantic  Pachyderms,  such  as  the  Elephant  and  Rhinoce- 
ros ;  of  numerous  Ruminants  ;  of  Sloths,  Ant-Eaters,  and 
Armadillos  ;  of  Birds  with  gorgeous  plumage  ;  of  gigantic 
and  powerful  Reptiles  ;  and  of  Insects  of  the  most  varied 
forms  and  most  splendid  hues.  But  the  ninety  American 
species  of  Monkeys  are  all  different  from  a  nearly  equal 
number  found  in  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  The  latter 
have  the  nostrils  near  together,  only  thirty-two  teeth, 
cheek-pouches,  and  the  tail  non-prehensile ;  while  the 
American  Monkeys  have  the  nostrils  widely  separated, 
thirty-six  teeth,  no  cheek-pouches,  and  in  many  cases  a 
prehensile  tail.  The  Lion,  Tiger,  and  Leopard,  the  Ele- 
phant and  Rhinoceros,  are  confined  to  Africa  and  Asia, 
and  their  only  representatives  in  America  are  the  Puma, 
Jaguar,  and  Tapir.  The  Camel  belongs  to  Africa  and 
countries  adjacent,  although  it  is  true  it  has  an  analogue 
in  the  Llama  of  South  America.  The  Sloths  of  South 
America,  and  the  Armadillos  of  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica, have  not  even  analogues  in  any  other  quarter  of  the 
globe.  Four  hundred  species  of  Humming-birds,  many 
of  which  vie  with  the  rainbow  in  the  colors  of  their  plu- 
mage, belong  mainly  to  Tropical  America,  but  not  one 
was  ever  found  in  all  the  vast  realms  of  the  Eastern  Con- 
tinent. 

If  we  compare  the  animals  of  South  America,  of  Africa, 
and  of  Australia,  we  find  in  most  cases  not  even  family 
resemblances.  Australia,  though  lying  with  a  large  part 
of  its  northern  half  within  the  tropics,  has  no  Monkeys, 
no  Pachyderms,  no  Edentates,  and  no  Ruminants.  The 
numerous  mammals  of  this  island  are  all  Marsupials; 
and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that,  outside  of  Australia 
and  vicinity,  no  marsupials  exist  on  the  globe,  except 


532         GEOGRAPHICAL    DISTRIBUTION    OF   ANIMALS. 

one  group  —  the  Opossum  Family  —  which  is  found  in 
America. 

If  we  look  at  North  America  alone,  we  find  ample  illus- 
trations of  some  of  the  principles  first  stated.  As  a  genr 
eral  rule,  the  animals  are  specifically  different  on  the  two 
sides  of  the  continent,  and  in  many  cases  the  Rocky 
Mountains  are  the  line  of  separation.  Some  animals,  as 
the  Pronghorn,  Rocky  Mountain  Goat,  and  Rocky  Moun- 
tain Sheep,  have  not  even  an  analogue  in  the  eastern  por- 
tion of  the  continent.  Even  those  animals  that  resemble 
each  other  so  much  that  they  were  formerly  regarded  as 
the  same  in  both  halves  of  the  continent,  are  now  known 
to  differ  specifically  from  one  another.  This  is  true  of 
Mammals  and  Birds,  Reptiles  and  Fishes,  Insects,  and  the 
lower  forms. 

From  the  facts  stated  above,  it  would  seem  that  climate 
has  no  power  to  mould  or  shape  the  species  of  animals, — 
and  the  same  is  true  in  regard  to  plants,  —  or  to  change 
one  species  into  another.  Were  it  so,  any  given  climate 
would  produce,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  same  species  of 
animals  in  all  the  countries  within  its  limits.  But  so  far 
from  this  being  the  case,  we  find  that,  in  spite  of  the  in- 
fluence of  climate,  animals  of  the  different  countries  even 
of  the  same  climatic  zone  are  specifically,  if  not  generi- 
cally,  distinct,  and  in  many  cases  even  family  resemblances 
are  wanting. 

Although,  through  the  agency  of  man,  and  in  many 
other  ways,  animals  of  one  region  or  country  have  been 
introduced  into  another,  we  are  probably  not  to  look  to 
any  such  accidental  operations  for  an  explanation  of  the 
distribution  of  animals  into  many. well-marked  zoological 
provinces.  On  the  contrary,  careful  observers  have  been 
led  to  believe  that  animals  as  well  as  plants  have  been 
created  by  an  Omniscient  Being,  in  the  places,  and  for 
the  places,  which  they  now  occupy. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS. 


IN  the  preceding  chapters  we  have  obtained  a  glimpse 

—  and  only  a  glimpse  —  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  as  it 
now  appears  on  the  surface  of  our  globe.     But  the  animals 
of  the  present,  vast  as  are  their  numbers,  are  but  a  hand- 
ful compared  to  those  that  have  occupied  the  surface  of 
the  earth  in  past  geologic  ages,  and  that  are  now  known 
only  by  their  petrified  remains,  which  fill  the  rocks  in 
many  countries  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight  miles  or  more. 
Nature   has   embalmed   these   races,  and  handed  them 
down  to  us  so  perfectly  preserved,  that  we  are  able  to  get 
at  least  a  faint  view  of  the  phases  of  life  during  all  the 
past  ages  of  the  world.   And  it  is  a  fact  of  the  highest  sig- 
nificance, that  all  the  animals  of  the  past,  and  all  those  of 
the  present,  are  created  according  to  the  same  great  plan. 
Radiates,  Mollusks,  Articulates,  and  Vertebrates  are  the 
four  *  Types  under  which  animal  life  has  been  exhibited 

*  We  must  not  omit  to  mention,  that  there  is  a  vast  number  of  beings 

—  regarded  by  some  as  animals  and  others  as  plants  —  which  are  believed 

Fig-  529- 

Fig.  530.  Fig.  531.  Fig.  532. 


Gregarina  sipvncuU. 


Portion  of  S.  punctatum, 
Sph&rozoum  punc-  magnified. 


Vorticella. 


tatum. 
Figs.  529 -539,- Protozoa. 


534 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS. 


during  all  the  ages  since  its  first  appearance  upon  the 
earth.  When  we  consider  the  classes,  the  orders,  the 
families,  the  genera,  the  vast  number  of  living  and  per- 
haps the  much  greater  number  of  extinct  species,  and 
then  consider  that  each  species  is  represented  in  many 
cases  by  millions  of  individuals,  and  that  probably  no  two 

by  some  eminent  naturalists  to  constitute  a  fifth  branch  of  the  Animal 
Kingdom,  called  PROTOZOA.  These  organisms  are  almost  wholly  aquatic, 
and,  excepting  the  Sponges,  are  mainly  exceedingly  minute.  The  Protozoa 


Fig-  533- 


Fig-  534- 


Podocyrtis  Schomburgkii. 


Fig.  535- 


Fig.  536. 


Amoeba  radiasa. 


Lagetta  striata. 


Fig.  537- 


Polystomella  crispa* 


Fig.  538. 


Nummttlites  lenticnlaris. 
Section. 


Fig.  539- 


Sponge,  in  action.  Sponge. 

include  three  groups,  which  have  been  much  divided  and  subdivided  by 
authors  :  — Infusoria,  of  which  Vorticella,  Fig.  529,  is  a  prominent  exam- 
ple; Rhizopoda,  including  Foraminifera,  Figs.  535-537;  and  Spongidse, 
or  Sponges,  well  known  to  all,  Figs.  538,  539. 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  535 

individuals  even  of  the  same  species  are  exactly  alike  in 
every  particular,  and  yet  that  each  one  of  all  these  un- 
counted millions  bears  within  itself  the  stamp  of  a  Ra- 
diate, or  a  Mollusk,  or  an  Articulate,  or  a  Vertebrate,  so 
clearly,  that,  by  patient  study,  the  student  of  nature  is 
able  to  refer  every  one  of  to-day,  and  of  bygone  ages,  to 
its  appropriate  type,  we  are  impressed  with  the  great 
truth  that  in  the  Animal  Kingdom  —  and  it  is  so  in  all 
nature  —  there  is  the  greatest  possible  diversity,  and  that 
in  all-  this  diversity  there  is  perfect  unity  ;  and  hence  we 
are  forced  to  believe  that  all  the  animals  of  the  past,  and 
all  those  of  the  present,  have  been  created  according  to  a 
plan  wrought  out  in  the  Divine  Mind  before  the  founda- 
tion of  the  world. 


INDEX 


A. 

B. 

Abactinal,  498. 
Acalephs,  506. 
Acanthopterygians,  326. 

Baboons,  19. 
Bacon  Beetle,  423. 
Badgers,  48. 

Acephala,  489. 

Bald  Eagle,  135. 

Acrydii,  447. 

Bark  Lice,  440. 

Actinal,  498. 

Barnacles,  465. 

Actinaria,  522. 

Bass,  327. 

Actinostome,  498. 

Batrachians,  308. 

Agoutis,  78. 

Batraqhus,  340. 

Alausa,  347. 

Bats,  23. 

Albatrosses,  276. 

Beavers,  67. 

Alcyonaria,  519. 
Alligators,  294. 

Bears,  50. 
Bedbug,  442. 

Alpaca,  109. 
Altrices,  120. 

Bee,  370. 
Bee-Fly,  417. 

Amblyopsis,  344. 

Bee-Moth,  408. 

Ammonite,  476. 

Beetles,  420-434. 

Amphibians,  308. 

Belone,  343. 

Amphioxus,  360. 

Bill-Fish,  343. 

Amphipods,  464. 

Blackbird,  219. 

Angler,  339. 
Angle-Worm,  468. 

Birds,  115. 
Bittern,  247. 

Animal  Kingdom,  2. 

Blennies,  337. 

Anoura,  309. 

Blind-Fish,  344. 

Ant,  373. 
Ant-Eaters,  85. 
Ant-Lions,  453. 

Blind-  Worm,  300. 
Blistering  Beetle,  428. 
Bluebird,  170. 

Antelope,  102. 

Blue-Fish,  33S. 

Antelopinae,  100. 

Boatbill,  249. 

Aphidae,  439. 
Apoda,  317. 

Boat-Fly,  44r. 
Bobolink,  219. 

Apple-tree  Borer,  433. 

Bombus,  371. 

Aquila,  133. 

Bombyx,  399. 

Arachnida,  455. 
Ardeidae,  244. 
Argonautidse,  472. 
Armadillo,  83,  84. 
Army-Worm,  405. 

Bot-Fly,  417. 
Bovinse,  TOO,  105. 
Brachiopoda,  496. 
Brachyurans,  462. 
Branches,  3. 

Articulata,  361. 

Breams,  328. 

Arvicola,  75! 

Bruchus,  429. 

Ascidians,  495. 
Asp,  308 
Astenoids,  503. 
Astrophyton,  505. 
Auk,  282. 

Bryozoa,  497. 
Buffalo,  106. 
Bugs,  435. 
Burbot,  349. 
Butcherbird,  186. 

Aurochs,  107. 

Buntings,  204. 

Avoset,  255. 

Bustard,  243. 

Axolotl,  317. 
Aye-Aye,  62. 

Butterflies,  381-391. 
Buzzard,  121,  128. 

Cachelot,  112. 
Caddice-Fly,  454. 
Csecilians,  317. 
Canna,  103. 
Camelids,  107. 
Canvas-Back,  270. 
Cardinal,  217. 
Caribou,  96. 
Carnivora,  33. 
Carp,  341. 
Castor,  67. 
Cat-Bird,  190. 
Cat-Fish,  344. 
Catostomi,  342. 
Cats,  35. 
Cavicorma,  100. 
Cedar  Birds,  186. 
Centipedes,  458. 
Cephalopoda,  471. 
Cervidae,  94. 
Cestoidae,  469. 
Cetacea,  109. 
Chameleonidae,  297. 
Chamois,  102. 
Chats,  175. 
Cheiroptera,  23. 
Chewink,  217. 
Chiacalacca,  234. 
Chickadee,  197. 
Chimpanzee,  16. 
Chinchillas,  79. 
Chironectes,  339. 
Chiton,  486. 
Chrysalis,  363. 
Chuckwill's  Widow,  i 
Cicada,  436. 
Cirripeds,  465. 
Civet,  41. 
Clam,  494. 

Clamatores,  154,  159. 
Classes,  3. 
Clupeidse,  346. 
Cobra,  307. 
Cochineal,  441. 
Cockle,  491. 
Cockroach,  444. 
Cod,  348. 

Coleoptera,  420-434. 
Colias,  384. 


INDEX. 


537 


Collyrio,  186. 
Columbae,  230. 

Echinodermata,  498. 
Echinoids,  500. 

Golden  Eagle,  133. 
Goldfinch,  201. 

Condor,  121. 
Congo  Snake,  315. 

Edentata,  82. 
Eel,  351,  352. 

Goose,  265.                        • 
Goose-Fish,  339. 

Conner,  340. 
Coots,  264. 

Eider,  272. 
Elephant,  87,  88. 

Gophers,  64. 
Gordius,  468. 

Copperhead,  306. 

Elk,  96. 

Gorilla,  17. 

Coral,  518. 
Corallum,  518. 

Entomostraca,  465. 
Ephemeridae,  451. 

Goshawk,  127. 
Grain  Moth,  410. 

Coral  Reefs,  528. 

Equidae,  91. 

"      Weevil,  430. 

Cormorant,  275. 

Ermine,  44. 

Grakle,  224. 

Corydalis,  453. 

Esox,  343. 

Grallae,  251. 

Cottus,  229. 

Grallatores,  243. 

Couia,  68. 

Grampuses,  114. 

Courlan,  244. 

. 

Grasshopper,  447. 

Cow  Bird,  220. 

Falconidae,  123. 

Grebes,  282. 

Cowry,  481. 

Families,  3. 

Grosbeak,  200,  215. 

Crab,  462. 

Felidse,  34. 

Grouse,  237. 

Crane,  244. 

Ferret,  45. 

Gryllotalpa,  445. 

Creeper,  173,  194, 
Cricket,  445. 

Fiber,  76. 
Field  Mice,  75. 

Gryllus,  446. 
Guenons,  19. 

Crinoids,  505. 

Finch,  200-214. 

Guillemots,  284. 

Crocodilidae,  294. 

Fire-  Fly,  427. 

Guinea-Pigs,  79. 

Crossbill,  203. 

Fisher,  43. 

Gull,  278. 

Crow,  225. 

Fishes,  318. 

Gurnard,  329. 

Crow  Blackbird,  224. 

Fishes,     characteristics    of, 

Gymnotus,  352 

Crustaceans,  460. 

318-322. 

Ctenoids,  322. 

Fishes,  Orders  of,  322  -  326. 

H. 

Ctenophorae,  508. 

Fish-Hawk,  137. 

Cuckoos,  146. 

Flamingo,  251. 

Hag,  360. 

Curassow,  234. 
Curculio,  429. 

Flea,  419. 
Flounder,  350. 

Hake,  349. 
Halibut,  350. 

Curlews,  261. 

Fly,  413  -419. 

Haliotis.  464. 

Cursores,  242. 

Fly-catcher,  161-166.182,189. 

Hare,  79. 

Cuttlefish,  474. 

Flying-Fish,  344. 

Harpa,  480. 

Cycloids,  322. 

Foxes,  40. 

Harvest-  Fly,  435. 

Cyprinodontidae,  342. 

Frog,  310,  311. 

Hawk,  123-133. 

Fusus,  480. 

"    Moth,  391. 

Hedgehog,  32. 

. 

Helix,  486. 

Dace,  341. 

^T. 

Helminthes,  468. 

Dart  Moths,  405. 
Death-  Watches,  428. 
Decapods,  461. 
Deer,  94-98. 
Deiopeia,  396. 
Delta  Moth,  408. 

Galeopithicus,  23. 
Gallinae,  234. 
Gallinules,  264. 
Gall-Fly,  377. 
Gannet,  274. 
Ganoids,  322. 

Hemiptera,  435. 
Heteroptera,  435. 
'"        Homoptera,  435. 
Hemitripterus,  330. 
Herbivorous  Whales,  93. 
Heron,  244-248- 

Dermestes,  423. 
Dibranchiata,  472. 
Dinornis,  285.      • 
Diodon,  353. 

Gar-  Fishes,  343. 
Gar-Pike,  347. 
Gasteropoda,  476. 
proper,  477. 

Herring,  346. 
Hessian  Fly,  413. 
Heteropoda,  488. 
Hippopotamus,  89 

Diptera,  412. 
Discophorae,  -09. 

Gasterosteus,  331. 
Gaviae,  265,  273. 

Hogs,  90. 
Holothurioids,  499. 

Diver,  281. 

Gazelle,  102. 

Horn  Bug,  423. 

Dodo,  284. 
Dog,  38. 
Dog-Fish,  357. 

Gecko,  297. 
Genet,  42. 
Geographical     Distribution, 

Hornbill,  229. 
Horned  Toads,  29. 
Hornet,  372. 

Dolphin,  113,  336. 
Dormice,  67. 

529. 
Geometrid,  406. 

Horse,  91. 
'     Ffy,4i6. 

Dovekie,  284. 

Gerfalcon,  126. 

Mackerel,  334. 

Doves,  230-233. 
Dragon-Fly,  452, 

Giraffe,  99. 
Glass-Snake,  299. 

"     Shoe  Crab,  46 
Humming-Bird,  154. 

Dugong,  93. 
Duck  Hawk,  123. 

Gluttons,  46. 
Glyptodon,  84. 

Hydroidae,  512. 
Hyena,  38. 

Ducks,  267-272. 

Gnat,  413. 
Gnu,  103. 

Hylodes,  312. 
Hymenoptera,  -269. 

E. 

Goats,  104, 
Goat-sucker,  157. 

- 

Eagles,  133-  i^C. 
Earth  Worm,  467. 

Gobies,  338. 
Goby,  337. 

Ibex,  104. 

Earwig,  443,  459. 

Godwits,  261. 

Ibis,  250. 

538 


INDEX. 


Ichneumon,  42,  375. 
Ichneumonidae,  375. 
IcHthyosauri,  294. 
Icteridae,  219. 
Iguanidas,  295. 

Long-legs,  458. 
Long-spur,  204. 
Lophobranchiates,  352. 
Lophius,  339. 
Lump-Fish,  350. 

Nautilus,  475. 
Neuroptera,  369,  449. 
Night-Hawk,  158. 
Nightingale,  173. 
Nuthatch,  195. 

Iguanodon,  293. 

Lynxes,  37. 

Imago,  365. 

Lyre  Bird,  229. 

Insectivora,  26. 

. 

Insects,    characteristics     of, 

Oak-pruner,  432. 

361-366. 
Insessores,  154. 

• 

Mackerel,  334. 

Ocelot,  36. 
Oestridae,  417. 

Isopods,  464. 

Macruran,  463. 

Oniscus,  464. 

lulus,  459. 

Madreporaria,  524. 

Ophidia,  300. 

Magpie,   226. 

Ophiurioids,  504. 

Makis,  22. 

Opossum,  54. 

• 
abiru,  249. 

Malacopterygians,  341. 
Mallard,  267. 

Orang-Outang,  18. 
Orders,  3. 

ackdaw,  224. 

Mammals,  8. 

Oriole,  223. 

ay,  227. 
elly-  Fishes,  506. 

Man,  9. 
Manati,  93. 

Ornithorhynchus,  85. 
Orthoptera,  443. 

erboas,  71. 
umping  Mouse,  71. 

Mangouste,  42. 
Man-of-War  Bird,  274. 

Oryx,  103. 
Oscines,  154,  166. 

unonja,  388. 

Mantidae,  445. 

Osprey,  137. 

Marmoset,  21. 

Ostracoids,  465. 

Marmot,  66. 

Ostrich,  242. 

K. 

Marsupials,  54. 

Otters,  46. 

Kahau,  19. 
Kangaroo,  56. 
Katydid,  446. 
Kill-deer,  252. 
Kingbird,  162. 
Kingfisher,  160. 
Kite,  132. 
Koodo,  103. 

Martens,  43. 
Martin,  185. 
Mastodon,  88. 
May  Beetles,  425. 
May-Fly,  451. 
Meal-Worm,  428. 
MedusjE,  507-516. 
Megatherium,  83. 
Megalonyx,  83. 
Meloe,  429. 

Oven-bird,  177. 
Ovinas,  100,   103. 
Ovis,  103. 
Owlet  Moth,  405. 
Owls,  138-143- 
Ouzel,  172. 
Oyster,  489. 
'      Catcher,  254. 

T 

Melospiza,  212. 

. 

L.. 

Labyrinthici,  336. 

Menobranchus,  316. 
Mephitis,  48. 

Pachyderms,  86. 
Paleotherium,  90. 

Labrax,  327. 
Labridaa,  340. 

Merganser,  273. 
Mice,  70-76. 

Paludina,  484. 
Panda,  50. 

Lace-wings,  453. 

Mink,  45. 

Pangolins,  85. 

Lady-Bug,  434. 
Lagomys,  82. 
Lamellibranchiata,  489. 
Lamprey,  360. 
Lancet-  Fish,  336. 
Land  Snail,  486. 

Mite,  458. 
Mocking-bird,  189. 
Mole,  30. 
Mole  Cricket,  445. 
Mollusca,  470. 
Monkeys,  15. 

Panther,  35. 
Paper-  Sailor,  472. 
Paradiseidse,  229. 
Parrot,  143. 
Partridge,  239-242. 
Peach-tree  Borer,  394. 

Lark,  222. 

Monodon,  114. 

Peacocks,  235. 

Larva,  365. 

Moose,  95. 

Pearl  Oyster,  490. 

Lasso-cells,  516. 

Moths,  391  -412. 

Peccaries,  91. 

Leech,  468. 

Mound  Bird,  234. 

Pelican,  273. 

Lemmings,  76. 

Mountain  Goat,  101. 

Penguins,  283. 

Lemuridae,  22. 

Mullet,  337. 

Perch,  326. 

Leopard,  35. 

Murex,  479. 

Perchers,  154. 

Lepidosiren,  317. 

Muridae,  70. 

Petrel,  276. 

Lepidoptera,  381. 

Muscidae,  418. 

Pewee,  165. 

Lepidosteus,  347. 

Musk  Deer,  99. 

Phalarope,  255. 

Leporidag,  79. 

Musk  Ox,  105. 

Pheasant,  235. 

Leuciscus,  341. 

Muskrat,  76. 

Philomela,  173. 

Limosa,  261. 

Myriapods,  458. 

Pica,  226. 

Limpet,  485. 

Myrmeleon,  453. 

Picidae,  147. 

Limuloids,  466. 

Myxine,  360. 

Pickerel,  343. 

Lion,  35. 
Lithobius,  459. 

Pigeon,  231. 
Pigeon  Hawk,  125. 

Lizards,  493. 

• 

Pikas,  82. 

Llamas,  108. 

Naides,  491. 

Pike,  342. 

Lobster,  463. 

Narwhal,  114. 

'     Perch,  327. 

Locust,  446. 

Natica,  481.  • 

Pilot-Fishes,  335. 

Locomotive  Members,  8. 

Natural  History,  i. 

Pine  Finch,  202. 

Loligo,  474. 

Natatores,  264. 

Pipa,  308. 

INDEX. 


539 


Pipe-Fish,  353. 

Roebuck,  99. 

Snow-Bird,  210. 

Ploceus,  219. 
Placoids,  322. 
Plant-lice,  439. 

Rook,  226. 
Rose-breasted  Grosbeak,  2  15. 
Rose-chafer,  425. 

Snow  Gnats,  416. 
Sorex,  27. 
Sow-bug,  464. 

Platypus,  86. 
Plectognathes,  353. 
Plesiosauri,  294. 
Plover,  252,  253. 

Rotifers,  466. 
Ruminantia,  93. 

Sparrow,  200-214. 
Species,  3, 
Spermophile,  65.     . 
Sperm  Whale,  iia. 

Polecats,  46. 

. 

Sphargis,  293. 

Polyphemus,  401. 
Polyps,  517. 

Sable,  43. 
Salamander,  313. 

Spherosome,  498. 
Sphingidje,  391. 

Polyzoa,  497. 

Salt-marsh  Moth,  398. 

Spiders,  455. 

Pomotis,  328. 
Pond-  Snail,  487. 

Salmonidae,  345. 
Sanderling,  259. 

Spine-finned  Fishes,  326. 
Sponges,  354. 

Porcupines,  77. 

Sandpiper,  258,  259. 

Spoonbill,  251. 

Porgee,  332. 

Saperda,  433. 

Spring-tail,  449. 

Porpoises,  114. 

Sardine,  347. 

Squash-Bug,  442. 

Portuguese  Man-of-War,5i6. 
Pouched  Gopher,  68. 

Saturnia,  402. 
Saurians,  293. 

Squid,  474. 
Squirrels,  58-65. 

Prairie-Dog,  65. 

Sauridae,  347. 

Stag,  98. 

Precoces,  120. 

Saw-Fly,  378-380. 

Star-nosed  Mole,  32. 

Promethea,  401. 
Prong-horn,  101. 

Saw-Bill,  161. 
Saw-Fish,  358. 

Star-gazers,  328. 
Star-Fishes,  503. 

Proteus,  317. 

Scansores,  143. 

Starling,  225. 

Protozoa,  533. 

Scarabaeidae,  424. 

Stilt,  255. 

Ptarmigan,  240. 

Scorpion,  457. 

Sticklebacks,  331. 

Pterodactyli,  294. 

Scratchers,  230. 

Stone  Chats,  170. 

Pteropoda,  489. 

Sculpin,  329. 

Stork,  249. 

Puffins,  284. 

Scup,  333. 

Strisores,  154. 

Puma,  35. 

Sea-Anemone,  524. 

Strombus,  477. 

Pupa,  365. 
Purple  Finch,  201. 

Sea-Coot,  271. 
Sea-Horses,  353. 

Sturgeon,  355. 
Sucker,  342. 

Seal,  52. 
Sea^Iussel,  491. 

Suckers    359. 
bun-Pish,  354. 

• 

Sea-Urchins,  500. 

Surgeon,  336. 

Quadrumana,  15. 

Selachians,  356. 

Swallow,  184. 

Quail,  240. 

Serpula,  467. 

Swans,  265. 

Serpents,  300. 

Swift,  156. 

tj 

Sesia,  394. 

Swimmers,  264. 

f\+ 

Rabbit,  81. 

Seventeen-year  Cicada,  436. 
Sewellel,  68. 

Swine,  90. 
Sword-Fish,  335. 

Raccoons,  49. 

Shad,  347. 

Syngnathidas,  353. 

Radiata,  498. 

Shark,  356. 

Rail,  262. 

Sheep,  103. 

T. 

Raiidae,  358. 
Rana,  310. 

Sheepshead,  332. 
Sheldrake,  273. 

Tailor-Bird,  182. 

Rap  tores,  120. 
Rasores,  230. 

Shiner,  341. 
Ship-Worm,  495. 

Tanager,  183. 
Tape-  Worm,  469. 

Rats,  72. 

Shore  Lark,  199. 

Tapir,  90. 

Rattlesnake,  305. 

Shrew,  27-30. 

Tautog,  340. 

Raven,  225. 

Shrew  Mole,  31. 

Teal,  267. 

Razor-Shell,  494. 

Shrike,  186. 

Tenrecs,  33. 

Red-birds,  183. 
Red-Head,  270. 

Shrimp,  463. 
Silk-  Worm,  396. 

Tent-Caterpillar,  404. 
Termite,  450. 

Red-Poll,  203. 

Silversides,  337. 

Tern,  280. 

Redstart,  183. 

Simulium,  415. 

Testudinata,  286. 

Red-winged  Blackbird,  220. 
Reed-bird,  219. 
Regulus,  171. 

Sipunculoids,  499. 
Siredon,  317. 
Siren,  316. 

Tetrabranchiata,  475. 
Tetradecapods,  464. 
Tetrodon,  354. 

Reindeer,  96. 

Sitta,  195. 

Thrush,  167-170,  191. 

Remora,  351. 

Skate,  358. 

Thylacinus,  55. 

Reptiles,  285. 

Skink,  298. 

Tiger,  35. 

Rhea,  242. 

Skipper,  391. 

Tiger-  Beetle,  420. 

Rhinoceros,  88. 

Skunks,  48. 

Tineans,  411. 

Rice-bird,  219. 

Skylark,  173,  199. 

Tit-Lark,  173. 

"    Weevil,  43t. 

Sloth,  82. 

Titmouse,  196—198. 

Right  Whale,  no. 
Road-runner,  146. 

Slug,  487. 
Smelt,  346. 

Toad,  312. 
Toad-  Fish,  340. 

Robin,  169. 
"    Red-breast,  170. 

Snake-Bird,  275. 
Snapping  Turtle,  296. 

Tobacco-Pipe  Fish,  344. 
Torpedo,  359. 

Rodentia,  57. 

Snipe,  256  -  258. 

Toucan,  144. 

540 


INDEX. 


Towhee,  217. 
Tremex,  378. 
Tree-toad,  311. 
Tree  Sparrow,  210. 
Tree-hopper,  439. 
Tritons,  313. 
Trilobitcs,  464. 
Tringa,  258. 
Troglodytes,  193. 
Trogon,  145. 
Trochilidac,  154. 
Tropic-Bird,  275. 
Trout,  346. 
Trunk-Fish,  354. 
Tunicata,  495. 
Turkey,  235. 
Turnstone,  254. 
Turtles,  286. 
Tussock-Moths,  598. 
Types,  3. 

U. 

Unionids,  491. 
Uranoscopus,  328. 
Urocerata,  378. 
Urodela,  313. 
Ursidse,  49. 

V. 

Vampires,  24. 
Vampire,  359. 


Vertebrates,  6. 
Vicuna,  109. 
Viperidae,  307. 
Vireo,  187,  188. 
Volute,  481. 
Vultures,  121. 

w. 

Waders,  243. 
Walking-stick,  444. 
Walrus,  53. 
Wapiti,  97. 
Warblers,  172  -  182. 
Wasp,  372. 
Water  Beetles,  421. 
Water-measurer,  44 
Water  Newt,  315. 
Water  Thrush,  168. 
Waxwings,  185. 
Weasels,  44. 
Weevil,  429. 
Wentle-trap,  483. 
Whale,  no 
Wheat-Fly,  415. 
Whelk,  479.     ' 
Whippoorwill,  157. 


. 
Whiting,  349. 

ite  Whale,  114. 


Whi 


White-Fish,  346.  ' 
White-footed  Mice,  73. 
White  Ants,  450. 


Wild-cat,  37. 
Willet,  260. 
Wolf,  38,  39. 
Wolf-Fish,  338. 
Wolverine,  46. 
Wombat,  57. 
Wood  Duck,  268. 
Woodchucks,  66. 
Woodcocks,  256. 
Wood  Nymph,  395. 
Woodpecker,  147  -  154, 
Wood  Thrush,  168. 
Wood  Tortoise,  287. 
Wood  Wasp,  373. 
Worms,  466. 
Wren,  171,  191-194. 

Y. 

Yaguarundi,  36. 
Yak,  107. 
Yellow-legs,  260. 
Yellow-Bird,  201. 
Yellow-Throat,  174. 

z. 

Zebra,  92. 
Zeuglodon,  115. 
Zoarces,  338. 
Zoophytes,  518. 


THE   END. 


Cambridge  :  Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  Welch,  Bigelow,  &  Cc 


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Any  Map,  or  any  numher  of  Maps  of  the  Series  (except  Series  No.  3), 
can  be  selected,  if  a  full  set  is  not  required. 

By  the  admirable  system  of  coloring  adopted,  the  plateaus,  mountains, 
valleys,  rivers,  altitudes,  in  fact,  all  the  physical  characteristics  of  the 
Earth's  surface,  are  clearly  and  beautifully  expressed,  as  also  the  political 
features,  boundaries,  names  of  cities,  etc.,  etc. 


TESTIMONIALS. 


From  wh&t  I  know  of  PROF.  GUYOT'S  Wall  Maps,  etc.,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying 
that,  both  as  to  method  and  execution,  they  are  incomparably  superior  to  anything  of  the 
kind  thus  far  published  ;  and,  in  connection  with  the  series  of  text-books  by  the  same 
author,  which,  I  understand,  are  soon  to  be  published,  they  will  form  the  most  valuable 
means  for  the  study  of  geography,  in  which  department  there  is  urgent  necessity  for  new 
books  adapted  to  the  present  advanced  state  of  the  'science.  In  fact,  it  is  the  simple  truth, 
that  no  other  geographer  living  understands  the  relations  of  the  physical  feature  of 
our  earth  so  well,  or  knows  how  to  present  them  to  students  with  suck  simplicity 
and  clearness,  as  PROF.  GUYOT. 

L.  AGASSIZ. 

CAMBRIDGE,  MASS.,  March  21th,  1865. 

PROFESSOR  GUYOT,  the  author  of  "The  Earth  and  Man,"  is  one  of  the  ablest  Physical 
Geographers  in  the  world,  and  is  remarkable  not  only  for  his  general  knowledge  and  his 
comprehensive  views,  but  also  for  the  simplicity  of  his  method  of  presenting  his  favorite 
science  to  readers  or  hearers.  His  Maps  exhibit  in  a  striking  manner  all  these  qualities, — 
being  eminent  for  their  clearness  and  for  their  bold  exhibition  of  the  grander  truths,  aside 
from  unimportant  details. 

They  are,  therefore,  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  Class  Instruction,  and  for  the  children 
of  our  Common  Schools,  as  well  as  those  more  advanced.  The  same  will,  I  feel  assured,  be 
true  of  his  Text-Books  on  Geography. 

JAMES  D.   DANA, 
Professor  of  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  Yale  College. 

NEW  HAVEN,  June  20, 1865. 

PROFESSOR  GUYOT,  who  has  been  from  the  first  establishment  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution one  of  its  most  esteemed  collaborators,  is  preparing  a  series  of  Maps  and  Manuals 
of  Political  and  Physical  Geography,  which,  from  my  personal  knowledge  of  the  extensive 
learning  and  conscientious  industry  of  the  author,  I  can  warmly  recommend  to  the  public. 

The  Wall  Maps  of  the  series  which  have  already  appeared  are,  in  regard  to  exposition 
of  scientific  principles,  accuracy  of  detail,  amount  of  information,  and  general  style  of  exe- 
cution, greatly  superior  to  any  works  of  the  kind  previously  published  in  this  country. 

JOSEPH  HENRY, 
Secretary  Smithsonian  Institution. 
SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  WASHINGTON, 
June  6, 1855. 


IN  PRESS—  To  be  published  during  Hie  Fall, 
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New  York. 

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